From Global Call to Spiritual Endeavour: The Ottoman Declaration of Jihad in World War I and Its Legacy in Modern Muslim Thought

By Grace Mubashir, New Age Islam 07 November 2024 The Ottoman Empire’s Declaration Of Jihad In World War I Represents A Significant Historical Moment In The Relationship Between Politics And Religion In The Muslim World. The Event Illustrates the Potential for Religious Mobilisation but Also Highlights the Complexity of Muslim Responses, Especially Among Indian Muslims under British Rule Major Points: The Ottoman Declaration of Jihad is a valuable historical reference, reminding us of the need for nuanced, balanced, and ethical approaches to religious teachings in a rapidly changing world. In the contemporary world, the Ottoman Declaration offers lessons on the limits of religious declarations in global politics, as well as insights into the evolving understanding of jihad The historical context of the Ottoman call underscores the changing nature of religious obligations in modern Muslim-majority societies, where concepts like jihad are reinterpreted to align with values of peace, justice, and social progress. …. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire, an important and strategic Muslim-majority empire in the first decades of the 20th century made the momentous decision to issue a call to jihad against the Allied Powers in World War I. This declaration is one of the last big efforts by a political leader to mobilize global Muslim solidarity under the banner of religious duty. The Ottoman call was to invite the world's Muslims to join the cause and support the now-allied Ottoman Empire under the Central Powers. The Declaration held enormous political and religious significance in the history texts as Muslims in British India were regularly challenged on loyalty towards the British on sentiments of faith. I take the historical context of the Ottoman declaration of jihad, how Indian Muslims reacted to it, and to what extent this event remains relevant today. Finally, I discuss the concept of modern jihad and assess the changes in possible interpretations within the wider context of the historical "expiry" nature of such proclamations in today's world. Historical Background of the Ottoman Declaration of Jihad The Ottoman Empire was known by the early 20th century as the "Sick Man of Europe" since it had lost a significant amount of its territory and political power. At the beginning of 1914, as Europe headed towards war, the Ottomans found themselves in a precarious situation. Although the Ottoman Empire remained neutral initially, the empire soon entered the war as part of the Central Powers, which consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary. This decision was motivated by a complex interplay of factors: economic promises from Germany, a desire for once-lost prestige, and a strategic vision of safeguarding Ottoman territories from the confluence of European powers. As soon as the Ottoman Empire declared war, its leadership- the Young Turks and Sultan Mehmed V, who was also the caliph- recognised an available source of mobilisation in religious solidarity. On November 11, 1914, the Ottoman Empire declared jihad against the Allies, particularly Great Britain, France, and Russia, and called on Muslims under their rule to rise up against their colonisers. As the Ottoman Sultan was also the caliph, the highest spiritual leader for Sunni Muslims, this declaration carried weight and could, theoretically, mobilise Muslims worldwide. This declaration of Ottoman jihad was ultimately political. It was meant to bring weaknesses to the Allied forces through rebellion in colonies and stretch the hands of European governments. Yet, the religious appeal was true as well, formulated based on the principles of the religion and in defence of Muslim territory against the enemy's attack. The Ottoman declaration of jihad did not find people's warm appreciation but rather caused discussion among Muslims dwelling around the globe. Indian Muslims and their reaction This declaration of jihad by the Ottomans hit Muslims in India very strongly who were under the control of the British. Indians had for a long time regarded the Ottoman Sultan-Caliph as a spiritual entity even though political loyalty lay with the British Raj. The dual allegiance is, in fact, the very complex reality of Indian Muslims: on one side, they respect the caliphate of the Ottoman, and on the other side, they are under obligation to the British as a colonial subject. Loyalty and Dissent British officials were deeply worried by the implications of the Ottoman declaration for the Indian Muslims. To ensure loyalty, British officials had to convince Indian Muslims that the war was not a holy crusade and acted to ensure the general population would not fight on behalf of the Central Powers. Despite these efforts, the call to jihad did kindle some riots and tensions within India. Most Indian Muslims remained loyal to the British, while some perceived the Ottoman declaration as a valid summons to defend the caliphate. This led to the establishment of the Khilafat Movement, which began in India during the end of the First World War, as one response to the perceived threat against the Ottoman caliph and for upholding the authority of the caliph. The movement was technically not a response to the Ottoman declaration of jihad, but it expressed the attachment of Indian Muslims to the Ottoman caliphate and broader concerns about Muslim unity. The Role of the Ulama Indian ulama reacted to the call by the Ottomans in different ways. Some were on the side of the British Since, they argued that Muslims of India had contractual obligations towards the Raj. Others clandestinely felt the call of the Ottomans but kept their support on that to themselves for reasons of politics. However, some religious leaders and activists encouraged Indian Muslims to interpret the declaration of jihad by the Ottomans as a justified call. This brought in all the complexities of Indian Muslims in the colonial world: the call of the Ottomans was reverberating deep into regions full of religious sentiments. The modern relevance of the Ottoman Declaration of Jihad Today, the Ottoman Empire is a relic of the past, and no caliphate is currently united. However, the fact that the Ottoman declaration of jihad in 1914 has contemporary relevance, which it does both as a historical experience and as a yardstick in discussions about political Islam, Muslim solidarity, and the use of religion for political mobilisation gives us a clue about one aspect of the issue. Religious and Political Mobilisation Lessons This is a classic example of how political leaders use religious sentiments for national or political interests. Even though the players may not be traditional political leaders, modern political activists in many majority Muslim regions continue using religious rhetoric to create unity and legitimate governance. This declaration reminds us of the power and reach of religious declarations, especially in the lives of any society that defines itself based on faith. Impact on the Concept of Jihad The Ottomans' new declaration further elicited great discussions on jihad's nature. The very term "jihad" in modern times has become synonymous with the wrong use, exploitation, and the most vicious association with violence. Such present-day deliberations about jihad can therefore be presented as deliberations on the legitimate defence, self-determination, and resistance against injustice by regarding the 1914 declaration of the Ottoman Empire only as a defence and a strategic means rather than an appeal to violence. Impact on Muslim Unity This statement also speaks to the problem of Muslim unity in a world of nation-states. The Ottomans' call was among the last Muslim leaders who could strive to mobilize Muslims around the world for a unified cause-a cause largely done away with by the advent of nationalism and localized administration. This throws challenges to those who advocate for Muslim unity without disputing the complexity of national borders and cultural diversities. The End of Jihad in the Contemporary World As the world transforms itself, so do interpretations of jihad. For most contemporary Muslims, the tradition of a caliph-led global jihad no longer resonates with their reality. Modern scholars argue that many of the traditional calls to jihad—particularly those declared by a caliph or ruler—are largely outdated in the global context where Muslims are now minorities and majorities under differing political systems. Interpretations of Terrorism: In the modern world, jihad is more seen as a personal, spiritual battle rather than an armed campaign against perceived enemies. The shift in perception further exposes the different interpretations of jihad by the Muslim communities. Most Islamic scholars assert that jihad cannot be identified with violence but, instead, is a way of striving for justice, self-improvement, and social good. The Political Constraints of Jihad The Ottoman Declaration of Jihad shows that politically motivated calls to religiously sanctioned warfare may, under all circumstances, not speak to Muslim populations. The concept of jihad in the age of nation-states has to be adapted to new realities. National sovereignty, international law, and global governance have been reasons for a world in which calls to a universal jihad face practical limitations and frequently provoke criticism. Some modern interpretations redefine jihad in humanitarian and social terms. Today, it means striving for better education and working for social justice by defending the rights of oppressed populations within the legal frameworks of contemporary nation-states. Its interpretations stress the peaceful content of jihad as a battle for justice, exactly according to the Quranic appeals for compassion, the care of community welfare, and moral conduct. Is Political Jihad Expiring? Thus, the Ottoman declaration of jihad in World War I marks one of the last efforts to call for a political and military jihad with international implications. Under modern conditions, a unitary call under religious authority is less practicable and pertinent. All Muslim-majority countries, no matter how strong their religious identity, operate in international systems wherein diplomacy, economic ties, and international law often supersede calls to militant action. Conclusion The declaration of Jihad by the Ottoman Empire of World War I is one of the more significant historical moments related to the Muslim world - politics vs. religion. And the event demonstrated the muscle of religious mobilisation on one side, but ultimately unveiled a much more mixed Muslim response, especially for India's Muslims who were otherwise under the rule of their British patrons. The call actually reminded the Indian Muslims that their true loyalty lay during the entire event. The declaration by the Ottoman has very many lessons in this modern world, mostly teaching on the limitations of the religious declaration in world politics and how jihad changes and is being perceived by mankind. Today jihad doesn't demand living by arms but a more spiritual life that can change personal lives as well as communal living conditions for improvement. The historical context of the Ottoman call, therefore, is characterised by the changing nature of religious obligations in modern Muslim-majority societies as concepts such as jihad are adapted to values of peace, justice, and social progress. The declaration of jihad by the Ottoman Empire is an excellent example in history and reminds one needs refined, balanced, and sensible approaches towards religious teachings in any changing world. ------ A regular columnist for NewAgeIslam.com, Mubashir V.P is a PhD scholar in Islamic Studies at Jamia Millia Islamia and freelance journalist. --------- URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-terrorism-jihad/global-spiritual-endeavour-ottoman-jihad-modern-muslim/d/133645 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism