A Critical Examination of Divisive Tendencies Among Muslims

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 14 November 2024 The Quran addresses the issue of shirk (polytheism) and divisive tendencies within the Muslim community in various verses, emphasizing the dangers of both dividing the religion and associating partners with God. At the heart of Islam lies the belief in the absolute oneness of God, and the Quran’s message is clear: The Muslim Ummah (community) must remain united in its worship of God alone. The threat of division is as insidious as a crack in the foundation of a building—slowly eroding the structure from within. This paper aims to critically engage with the Quranic discourse on shirk and divisiveness, particularly focusing on the implications of Wahhabi ideology and its divisive tendencies, drawing upon the scholarly perspectives of Khaled Abou el-Fadl, Professor of Law at the UCLA School of Law, America, a prominent scholar in the field of Islam and human rights, who has extensively written on issues of Islamic orthodoxy, sectarianism, and the politics of exclusion. Quranic Spirit on Solidarity The Quran intricately crafts a majestic narrative of unity, decisively repudiating division among faithful hearts and highlighting the unyielding power of collective solidarity. Several verses act as a beacon of solidarity, highlighting core principles of unity, justice, compassion, and perseverance: "The believers are but brothers, so make peace between your brothers" (Q.49:10) profoundly emphasizes the fraternal bond among believers, transcending ethnic, linguistic, cultural and creedal divisions. This verse promotes mutual respect, understanding, compassion and solidarity, uniting believers across diverse backgrounds. By affirming shared faith and humanity, it fosters global unity of believers, overriding sectarian, local and ideological differences. "Hold firmly to the rope of God all together and do not become divided" (Q.3:103) serves as a call against division and sectarianism, encouraging Muslims to unite —a firm anchor in life’s turbulent sea. "Indeed, those who have divided their religion and become sects—you, are not [associated] with them in anything" (Q.6:159) unequivocally dissociates the Prophet from those who fragment Islam into sects, likening their claims to disjointed puzzle pieces. The Quran emphasizes the harmony and continuity of God's message, implying that divisions arise from straying from this unified path: "He has ordained for you the same religion which He enjoined on Noah, and which We have revealed to you, and which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses and Jesus." (Q.42:13) "Have you seen the one who takes his own desire as his god?" (Q.25:43) illustrates how egoism and self-interest can become forms of shirk. The Quran also illuminates justice, fairness, and compassion as guiding principles. In Q.30:31-32, believers are directed to turn solely to God, avoiding the pitfalls of division. The emphasis on unity serves as a warning against the destructive force of sectarianism. Furthermore, the Quran cautions against the dark shadow of oppression, with the story of Pharaoh in Q.28:4 serving as a stark reminder of tyranny’s inevitable downfall. Like a house built on shifting sands, Pharaoh's oppressive rule crumbled under the weight of division and oppression. The Quran emphasizes patience and perseverance amid adversity. In Q.7:183, believers are assured that steadfastness will yield rewards, likening perseverance to an unyielding mountain standing firm against turbulent winds. By embracing these Quranic teachings, Muslims can work toward creating a united, just, and compassionate society, where unity is woven seamlessly into the fabric of life. Shirk and Sectarianism in the Quran The Quranic verses on shirk and division within the faith are not just theological propositions; they are also ethical imperatives for the cohesion of the Muslim community. These verses act as warning signs, like red flags fluttering in the wind, alerting us to the dangers of straying from the path of unity. Q.6:159 states: "Indeed, those who divide their religion and become sects – you, are not [associated] with them in anything. Their affair is only [left] to God; then He will inform them about what they used to do." This verse underscores the serious threat posed by religious division and warns against creating factions within the faith. The act of dividing religion into sects is not merely a theological error; it is a moral transgression that undermines the very essence of Islamic unity. Wahhabism, often associated with the notion of an exclusive and rigid interpretation of Islam, has, in practice, fostered a divisive understanding of religious orthodoxy. Khaled Abou el-Fadl, in his critique of Wahhabism, argues that the movement’s strict adherence to an austere interpretation of Islamic teachings leads to a form of religious exclusivism that alienates other Muslims. Like a lighthouse that shines a single, blinding beam of light, Wahhabism claims a monopoly on truth, pushing aside any other interpretations and contributing to the fragmentation of the Muslim community. By insisting on ideological purity, it creates a climate of intellectual sterility, where diversity of thought is viewed as a threat, rather than a strength. Similarly, "Of those who divide their religion and break up into sects, each faction rejoicing in what it has" (Q.30:32) highlights the self-congratulatory nature of sectarianism, where each group celebrates its own ideological purity while ignoring the commonalities that bind them together as Muslims. Wahhabism's insistence on the correctness of its interpretation—often at the expense of acknowledging the legitimacy of other Islamic traditions—mirrors this Quranic critique of divisiveness, as though each group is intoxicated by its own sense of superiority, while the broader community suffers the hangover of division. The Importance of Unity and Tawhid The Quran repeatedly emphasizes the unity of the faith and the oneness of God (Tawhid). Q.23:52-53 declares: "Indeed, this, your religion, is one religion, and I am your Lord, so fear Me. But the people divided their religion among themselves." The ideal is a single, undivided faith, with God as the sole authority, and any division within this religious framework is seen as a deviation from the truth. This call for unity stands in stark contrast to the divisive tendencies promoted by some interpretations of Islam, including Wahhabism, which is often accused of fostering sectarianism and excluding those who do not conform to its rigid doctrines. It is as though the Quran is holding up a mirror to the Ummah, urging them to reflect upon their fractured image and strive for a cohesive identity under the banner of God's unity. Wahhabism’s approach to Islamic unity is grounded in a strict and literalist interpretation of the Quran and Hadith, often leading to the condemnation of other Islamic traditions such as Sufism, Shi’ism, and even Sunni practices that do not align with its interpretation. This rigid understanding of Islam, according to Khaled Abou el-Fadl, negates the rich diversity of Islamic thought and practice, turning Islam into a rigid, monolithic entity, like a tree that grows in only one direction, stifling the natural variety of its branches. Instead of fostering unity in faith, it creates an atmosphere of "othering," where Muslims are labelled as either orthodox or heretical, based on their adherence to a particular interpretation. The Quranic insistence on the oneness of God is also central to the rejection of Shirk (polytheism). Q.28:50 warns against following one’s desires, which can lead to division and misguidance: "If they do not respond to you – then know that they only follow their [own] desires. And who is more astray than one who follows his desire without guidance from God?" Shirk, in this sense, is not merely a theological misstep; it is an ethical failure that leads to spiritual fragmentation and division. By promoting divisive sectarianism, Wahhabism, according to Abou el-Fadl, risks leading the Muslim community into a state of spiritual disarray, where adherence to narrow interpretations becomes a form of "idolatry" in itself—an elevation of human-made doctrines above the divinely ordained unity of the faith. Personal Accountability and the Ethics of Sectarianism One of the key themes in the Quran is personal accountability. While the community may experience division, each individual is ultimately accountable to God for their actions. Q.13:16 challenges the idea of shirk with a powerful rhetorical question: "Say, 'Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?' Say, 'God.' Say, 'Have you then taken besides Him allies not possessing [even] for themselves any benefit or harm?'" This verse not only rejects polytheism but also underscores the futility of dividing the faith for the sake of human allegiances. The call to resist sectarianism is, at its core, a call to personal moral responsibility, urging individuals to break free from the shackles of dogmatic conformity and instead turn towards God as the ultimate source of authority. Khaled Abou el-Fadl’s analysis of Wahhabism highlights how sectarian movements often operate in a manner that undermines individual autonomy and moral responsibility. By claiming an exclusive claim to divine truth, such movements stifle the ethical capacities of individuals, forcing them into conformity with a singular, often dogmatic worldview. This coercive interpretation of Islam, which demands uniformity in belief and practice, stands in direct opposition to the Quranic call for personal responsibility and the recognition of God’s sovereignty. It is as if the individual is caught in a straitjacket, unable to move or think freely, while the Quran calls for a liberation of the heart and mind in the service of God. The Political and Social Consequences of Wahhabi Divisiveness Wahhabism’s divisive tendencies have far-reaching political and social implications, particularly in the context of the modern Muslim world. The movement’s insistence on religious purity and ideological conformity has contributed to sectarian violence, exclusion, and the marginalization of diverse Islamic traditions. Khaled Abou el-Fadl argues that Wahhabism, by rejecting the pluralistic nature of Islam and promoting a monolithic understanding of the faith, fosters an environment of ideological intolerance that can lead to conflict both within Muslim societies and between Muslims and non-Muslims. Like a wildfire, its narrow vision spreads quickly, consuming everything in its path, leaving behind destruction and division. The Quranic verses we have examined call for a recognition of the unity of the Muslim Ummah, emphasizing that the division of religion into sects and the practice of shirk are grave errors. By examining the divisive tendencies of Wahhabi ideology through the lens of these verses, we can see that such movements, which prioritize ideological purity over unity, fail to uphold the ethical and theological imperatives of Islam. In a world where religious and ideological divisions continue to fuel violence and discord, the Quran’s call for unity and Tawhid remains an urgent and necessary framework for fostering peaceful coexistence and mutual respect among Muslims. Khaled Abou el-Fadl’s Criticism of Puritanical Ideologies “In Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s view, Islam was fundamentally at odds with the pluralism, diversity, and richness that emerged in the Islamic civilization because, in his view, the truth was easily attainable, and the only challenge was in physical submission to the truth—not in comprehension or understanding. Therefore, disagreements and discourse were symptomatic of stubbornness and argumentativeness in failing to recognize the obvious and clear truth, and failure to physically submit was proof of weakness of faith. The Wahhabi creed also considered any form of moral thought that was not entirely dependent on the text as a form of self-idolatry and treated humanistic fields of knowledge, especially philosophy, as “the sciences of the devil.” (El Fadl, Reasoning, p.229) “One of the unforgettable outrages committed by the Wahhabis took place in 1924, when the Wahhabis invaded and occupied Mecca. Among other atrocities, they burned an invaluable library containing forty thousand manuscripts and historical documents, sixty thousand very rare printed texts, and many historical artefacts. The library in Mecca was considered an invaluable collection containing manuscripts and items going back to the founding years of Islam and numerous sources on early and extinct schools of thought. But it is exactly because this library contained a diversified collection that could be mined to challenge the Wahhabi narrative on Islamic history, theology, and law that it was razed and burned to the ground.” (El Fadl, Reasoning, p.229) “He (Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab) argued that it was entirely immaterial what a non-Muslim might think about Muslim practices, and in fact it was a sign of spiritual weakness to care about whether non-Muslims were impressed by Muslim behaviour or not. Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab argued that Muslims must show enmity and hostility to unbelievers (Mushrikun). Pursuant to a doctrine known as Al-Wala’ Wa Al-Bara’ (literally, the doctrine of loyalty and disassociation), Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab argued that it is imperative for Muslims not to befriend, ally themselves with, or imitate non-Muslims. This enmity and hostility of Muslims toward non-Muslims must be visible and unequivocal.” (El Fadl, Reasoning, p.229) “The various Wahhabi rebellions in the nineteenth century were very bloody as the Wahhabis indiscriminately slaughtered large numbers of Muslims, especially those belonging to Sufi orders and the Shi‘i sect. In 1802, for example, the Wahhabi forces massacred the Shi‘i inhabitants of Karbala, and in 1803, 1804, and 1806 the Wahhabis executed a large number of Sunnis whom they considered heretical in Mecca and Medina.” (El Fadl, Reasoning, p.235-236) The Puritan ideology adopts a binary perspective, positioning Islam as absolute goodness and non-Muslims as embodiments of evil. This worldview, rooted in classical Islamic jurisprudence, emphasizes the doctrine of "Al-Wala' Wa Al-Bara'" – loyalty to Muslims and disassociation from non-Muslims. “Muslims must not befriend non-Muslims or allow themselves to care for or love non-Muslims. The fact that non-Muslims are not Muslim is seen as a moral fault, and if Muslims care for non-Muslims, it is an indication that these Muslims are putting their emotions before their religious commitments, a clear sign of weak- ness of faith. Muslims may show kindness toward non- Muslims to set a good example, and Muslims may ally themselves with non-Muslims if it is necessary. But in all cases, Muslims cannot love non-Muslims because this is equal to loving what is immoral, and Muslims must strive to assert their superiority as soon as they are able to do so.” (El-Fadl, The Great Theft, p.196-197) Most Muslim discourses are either apologetic and dogmatic, or legalistic and formalistic. In contemporary Muslim discourses, legalism and the pursuit of pedantic rules have replaced the search for moral or normative values. Result-oriented and unprincipled methodologies of inquiry are quite widespread. Even the so-called reformers or liberals rely on the opportunistic concept of public interest (Maslaha) to justify what they deem to be socially desirable results. Like the traditionalists or conservatives, Muslim liberals are dishonestly selective and noncritical in dealing with the Islamic tradition, and like the traditionalists or conservatives, they do not bother with systematic methodologies of inquiry or with the search for moral or normative values. Authoritarian methodologies of knowledge are commonplace among all types of Muslim intellectual orientations, and this has led to intellectual dishonesty, censorship, and intolerance. Even centuries-old classical texts have been banned, while other classical texts have been censored or cleansed of “offending” passages. The treatment of women in many Muslim communities is simply appalling. The dominance of puritan creeds such as Wahhabism has led to an attitude of disregard and disrespect toward the Islamic intellectual heritage, and to an ahistorical, if not anti-historical, approach to Islam. In the words of a friend, “Wahhabism and Salafism have made Islam in the modern age boring and dull.” (El-Fadl, The Conference of the Books, p.10) The Quran’s teachings on shirk and divisiveness provide a powerful critique of movements that seek to divide the Muslim community under the guise of religious purity. Wahhabism, with its rigid and exclusionary interpretation of Islam, represents a contemporary manifestation of the very divisive tendencies that the Quran condemns. By promoting sectarianism and rejecting the diversity of Islamic thought, Wahhabism not only contradicts the Quranic call for unity but also risks leading the Muslim Ummah away from the true path of faith. Khaled Abou el-Fadl’s scholarship offers a critical lens through which to assess these divisive ideologies, urging Muslims to embrace the pluralistic and ethical principles at the heart of the Quranic message. Ultimately, the call for unity in faith, based on the oneness of God, remains the foundation for a cohesive, morally responsible, and peaceful Muslim community. The Ideology of Takfir and Wahhabism Wahhabism, a puritanical and reformist movement within Islam, emerged like a harsh wind in the Arabian Peninsula in the 18th century under the leadership of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792). This movement sought to "purify" Islam by returning it to what its followers saw as its original, pristine form, focusing on a strict adherence to monotheism (Tawhid) and a literal interpretation of Islamic texts. However, central to this ideology is the practice of Takfir, the act of casting other Muslims out of the fold of Islam and branding them as unbelievers or apostates. Like drawing a hard line in the sand, Takfir is wielded as a means of separating “true” believers from those deemed astray, creating an exclusive club that many Muslims do not wish to join. Although it was intended to preserve religious purity, this practice has opened Pandora’s box, bringing division and even violence to Muslim communities. According to renowned Islamic scholar Khaled Abou el-Fadl, Wahhabi Takfir is deeply rooted in a rigid, narrow, and literal interpretation of Islamic texts. Much like viewing the world through a straw, this perspective restricts one’s ability to see the richness and diversity of Islamic thought. Within Wahhabism, faith is defined so narrowly that it resembles a small, gated garden with high walls, where only the "pure" are permitted entry. This narrow view excludes various Islamic schools of thought, such as the Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Sufi traditions, and casts a dark shadow over Muslims who follow different interpretations. Practices that have been embraced by countless Muslims over the centuries—like seeking intercession through saints, revering historical sites, or following certain jurisprudential traditions—are often branded by Wahhabis as shirk (polytheism) or Bid‘a (unwarranted innovation). This label of "innovation" is, to many, like a scarlet letter, marking them as outsiders or even enemies of Islam. Such practices are condemned, and their adherents are labelled as apostates, leaving them out in the cold. Wahhabi Takfir thus narrows what it means to be a "true" Muslim to a rigid definition, excluding the colourful tapestry of traditions that have been woven into Islamic culture for centuries. The most alarming aspect of Wahhabi Takfir is its association with extremism and violence. Declaring other Muslims as unbelievers or infidels opens a dangerous floodgate, providing justification for hostility or even violent acts against those deemed "unworthy." This ideological weapon has sown seeds of discord, creating rifts within Muslim communities and encouraging fringe groups to rise up against those they view as deviants or apostates. The practice of Takfir is like throwing fuel on a fire, igniting existing tensions and giving extremists a rallying cry to justify aggression. With its black-and-white worldview, Wahhabism transforms theological disputes into a matter of life and death, framing disagreements as existential threats. Such an outlook has fractured Muslim societies, where accusations of disbelief can become tools of oppression or vengeance. By turning complex matters of faith into a “with us or against us” mentality, Wahhabi ideology has paved the way for extremist movements to flourish, much like weeds overtaking a neglected garden. Where mainstream Islamic teachings encourage dialogue and understanding, Wahhabi Takfir cultivates a hostile environment where militancy can grow unchecked. In contrast, the broader Islamic tradition has always valued diversity in interpretation, intellectual debate, and a contextual understanding of sacred texts. The Quran itself is a wellspring of wisdom that calls for tolerance, patience, and dialogue. Verses encourage believers to seek understanding and engage in respectful exchanges, much like water nourishing the soil of human relationships (e.g., Quran 16:125, 49:13, 3:64, 22:40). Islamic scholarship has traditionally welcomed different schools of thought, recognizing that unity does not mean uniformity. Over centuries, scholars from the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali schools have engaged in dialogue, enriching Islam with a kaleidoscope of perspectives. This pluralistic tradition is a testament to Islam’s ability to flourish like a river branching into many streams, each contributing uniquely to the whole. Unlike the rigid stance of Wahhabi Takfir, which attempts to prune away branches it considers unworthy, traditional Islam encourages growth and adaptation, allowing a diverse garden of beliefs and practices to bloom. By adhering to an absolute, “one-size-fits-all” interpretation, Wahhabism closes the door to the intellectual and spiritual growth that has long been a hallmark of Islamic thought. This approach is like locking oneself in a small, dark room and rejecting the sunlight of wisdom that diverse interpretations bring. In doing so, Wahhabism not only rejects centuries of scholarship but also hinders the faith's ability to respond to the challenges of a complex, modern world. It is essential to recognize that Wahhabi Takfir represents a narrow road, trodden by a minority within the global Muslim community. The vast majority of Muslims do not subscribe to this divisive ideology; instead, they choose the broader, well-travelled path of inclusivity, respect, and unity. By turning away from the divisive language of Takfir, Muslims can reaffirm the core values of Islam—compassion, humility, and love for one another. In rejecting the ideology of Wahhabi Takfir, Muslims can embrace Islam's historical tradition of pluralism and mutual respect, creating a space where diverse ideas and interpretations can coexist like varied flowers in a thriving garden. By doing so, they contribute to a harmonious and unified community that reflects the true spirit of Islam. With this commitment to tolerance and understanding, Muslims can foster an atmosphere of unity, rejecting the harsh winds of division and discord. Such an approach not only strengthens internal bonds but also sends a powerful message of peace and coexistence to the broader world. Bibliography El Fadl, Khaled Abou, Reasoning with God: Reclaiming Shariah in the Modern Age, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2014 El-Fadl, El Fadl, Khaled Abou, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005 El Fadl, Khaled Abou, The Conference of the Books: The Search for Beauty in Islam, New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001 ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. 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