Faith and Reason in Early Islam: Lessons from the Mu’tazila Debate

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 18 November 2024 If you ask a devout Muslim today about their religious identity, the response is likely to align with the broad categories of Sunni or Shiite. Among Sunnis, many follow one of the four established schools of jurisprudence—Hanafi, Shafi, Maliki, or Hanbali—while others, like contemporary literalists, claim adherence to the "Salaf," emulating the first three generations of Islam. However, this seemingly straightforward framework often conceals a richer reality: the early Islamic era was a far more diverse and nuanced tapestry than modern binaries suggest. The so-called "golden age" of the Salaf was anything but uniform. It flourished with a multitude of intellectual traditions, including the now largely forgotten legal methodologies of scholars like al-Awzai, al-Thawri, and al-Zahiri, whose schools eventually faded into obscurity. During this period, the Mu’tazila, pioneers of Kalam (Islamic theology), also emerged with ideas that shone both as a source of enlightenment and as a trigger for controversy. Today, the Mu’tazila are often dismissed as heretics within many Sunni circles, their intellectual contributions overshadowed by centuries of orthodoxy. Yet their influence is undeniable, like an invisible hand shaping Islamic thought, particularly in the rejection of anthropomorphic descriptions of God. Their legacy, though understated, has left a lasting imprint on Islamic theology. Faith and Reason: A Harmonious Partnership For the Mu’tazila, faith and reason were not rivals in opposition but complementary forces, two wings enabling the soul to soar toward divine understanding. Their rationalist approach was not the defiance of heretics but a profound belief that divine revelation and human reason were intricately intertwined. To them, reason was a God-given compass, essential for navigating moral and spiritual landscapes. They perceived moral truths as gems waiting to be discovered—reason unearthed them, while revelation affirmed them. Their perspective treated reason as a finely tuned instrument, creating harmony with faith rather than discord. Critics of this view dismissed it with the maxim, “fallible humans cannot judge the infallible,” reducing reason to an unreliable tool, unfit to grasp divine wisdom. The Theological Arena The intellectual debates of early Islam were as dynamic as a battlefield of ideologies. The Mu’tazila, for instance, vehemently opposed the concept of predestination, which they viewed as a tool for despots to justify oppression. In their eyes, humans were free agents, responsible for their actions, steering their destinies like sailors navigating turbulent seas with the guidance of divine revelation and human reason. Similarly, their assertion that the Quran was "created" rather than co-eternal with God ignited fierce theological disputes. To their opponents, this idea was incendiary, but to the Mu’tazila, it was a necessary defence of God's absolute oneness. Their reasoning was precise and surgical, seeking to cut through dogma to preserve the essence of divine truth. The Euthyphro Dilemma and Ethical Objectivism Plato’s "Euthyphro" dialogue, which explores the nature of morality, poses the timeless dilemma: Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is inherently good? This question deeply resonates with debates on morality and divine command theory. The Mu’tazila leaned toward ethical objectivism, arguing that moral truths exist independently of divine command. For them, divine law reflects universal ethical principles rather than creating them. For instance, murder is inherently wrong, and its prohibition in Sharia merely acknowledges this pre-existing truth. To the Mu’tazila, moral truths were akin to celestial lights, guiding humanity regardless of human recognition. Their interpretation of Sharia illuminated these truths, presenting divine law as a beacon to navigate the moral universe. Reason vs. Literalism: The Hadith Debate Nowhere was the clash between reason and literalism more pronounced than in the debate over hadith. The Mu’tazila, proponents of reason, scrutinized hadith like jewellers inspecting gems, accepting only those that passed the test of both authenticity and ethical coherence. In contrast, their opponents, the Ahl al-Hadith, treated hadith as sacrosanct treasures, valuing their chain of transmission over their content. Consider the infamous hadith that condemned children of polytheists to hellfire. To the Mu’tazila, this claim was as absurd as a square circle, for it violated the innate moral compass bestowed upon humanity by God. They countered with the belief that God’s justice was immutable and could never permit such injustice. This debate was like a tug-of-war between two paradigms — one pulling toward the shores of reason and the other anchored in the deep waters of textual literalism. The Fall of Reason and the Rise of Orthodoxy The story of the Mu’tazila is a cautionary tale of intellectual vigour succumbing to political might. The turning point came with Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari’s dramatic conversion from Mutazilite rationalism to Hanbali literalism. His newfound stance, which emphasized submission over inquiry, spread like wildfire, reshaping Sunni orthodoxy. By the 11th century, the Mu’tazila were not merely defeated but erased, their ideas relegated to the shadows. The Qadiri Creed, a state-sponsored manifesto, sealed their fate, branding their rationalism as a heresy punishable by death. The Mu’tazila became like fallen stars — once luminous but now obscured by the gathering clouds of prevailing orthodoxy. Revisiting the Mu’tazilah’s Legacy Despite their fall, the Mutazila’s legacy endures, like embers smouldering beneath the ashes. Their emphasis on reason and ethical objectivism continues to inspire contemporary scholars, such as Khaled Abou El Fadl, who calls for “conscientious thinking” in religion. He echoes the Mu’tazilah’s insistence that faith should not be a blindfold but a lens through which moral clarity is achieved. Ahmad al-Raysuni, too, laments the intellectual ossification that followed the Mu’tazilah’s defeat, likening it to a ship that abandoned its compass to sail aimlessly on a sea of dogma. He calls for a revival of rationalism within Islamic thought, urging Muslims to reconcile their faith with universal ethics in the face of modern challenges. Engaging with the Divine Islamic tradition emphasizes the profound interplay between human agency and divine will, presenting life as some journey rich with possibilities for spiritual and intellectual growth. These possibilities are not merely the result of God's compassion and mercy but are actualized through humanity's engagement with the divine. This dynamic interplay involves moments of doubt and certitude, trial and error, disappointment and triumph, reflecting a deeply relational faith. In Islam, reasoning with the divine—through prayer, reflection, and action—serves as a vehicle for cultivating a reciprocated love of God. This process allows believers to achieve a state of peace and tranquillity, aligning their lives with divine purpose. Rationality and reasonableness are essential tools for navigating both spiritual and worldly challenges, though they operate in distinct domains. Rationality is the disciplined application of logic and reason, producing precise, structured outcomes based on defined assumptions. Reasonableness, by contrast, is subjective, situating rationality within the boundaries of context and desired objectives. It serves as a flexible judgment about what is appropriate or justifiable in a given situation. For Muslims, these concepts intersect deeply with faith, as rationality aids in interpreting divine will while reasonableness ensures that interpretations remain contextually sensitive. This dual approach has historically allowed Islamic thought to balance timeless divine principles with the changing needs of human societies. The tension between the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and certain interpretations of Islamic law exemplifies the challenges of applying reason and reasonableness in modern contexts. The issue of apostasy remains a particularly thorny obstacle, with some conservative voices outright rejecting the UDHR. For instance, Grand Ayatollah Khamenei’s dismissal of the UDHR as "mumbo jumbo by disciples of Satan" underscores a perception of inherent conflict between divine commands and human constructs. While his prioritization of the Qur'an over human declarations resonates with many Muslims, it dismisses the possibility of harmony between divine wisdom and universal ethics. As a Muslim, it is both perplexing and disheartening to see such rigid opposition, given that rational engagement with both frameworks could reveal common ground. Reconciliation between faith-based and universal principles remains a path worth exploring, guided by the twin lights of rationality and reasonableness. The Mu’tazila were neither angels nor demons but torchbearers of an intellectual tradition that sought to harmonize faith with reason. This account illuminates Islam's history as a richly layered narrative, interweaving diverse interpretations, spirited debates and disparate voices. As Muslims navigate the uncharted waters of the modern world, revisiting the Mutazila’s legacy may offer a compass to guide them toward a faith that is both timeless and timely — a beacon of light in a world often shrouded in shadows. ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/faith-reason-early-lessons-mutazila-debate/d/133741 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism