Thursday, June 26, 2025
Islam as Historical Development: Analysis of Quranic Universalism
By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam
26 June 2025
The notion that Prophet Muhammad founded Islam as a distinct, institutionalized religion oversimplifies the complex historical and theological processes that shaped what we now recognize as Islam. A hermeneutical analysis of the Quran, attentive to its linguistic roots, theological universalism, and historical context, reveals that Islam—far from being a singular historical creation—was a gradual development rooted in a perennial concept of submission to the Divine Will. The terms "Islam" and "Muslim," derived from the Arabic root S-L-M (denoting peace, wholeness, and submission), are presented in the Quran not as markers of a new sectarian identity but as timeless qualities of universal devotion to God. This essay traces the evolution of Islam from a primordial spiritual orientation to a formalized religious system, incorporating insights from scholars Toshihiko Izutsu, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, and Fred Donner on the meanings of Islam and Muslim. It argues that Islam’s institutional form emerged through a formative history shaped by theological reinterpretation, cultural adaptation, and communal consolidation rather than a single founding act by Muhammad.
Linguistic Foundations: The Universal Scope of Islam and Muslim
The etymological roots of Islam and Muslim provide a critical starting point for understanding their Quranic significance. Derived from the trilateral root S-L-M (س-ل-م), these terms carry meanings of peace, safety, wholeness, and submission:
• Islam (إسلام): Submission or surrender, specifically to the will of God, implying a state of alignment with divine purpose.
• Muslim (مسلم): An active participle meaning "one who submits," denoting a person who embodies this surrender through faith and action.
Hermeneutically, these terms are not inherently tied to a specific historical or cultural context. Their semantic breadth suggests a universal spiritual orientation rather than a narrowly defined religious identity. Toshihiko Izutsu, in his seminal work God and Man in the Quran, emphasizes the dynamic and relational nature of Islam as a verb-based concept. For Izutsu, Islam is not a static noun but an active process of self-surrender (taslim), reflecting a constant striving toward harmony with the Divine. This aligns with the Quran’s use of Islam and Muslim to describe a mode of being—living in harmony with the Divine—that transcends time, place, and institutional boundaries.
Wilfred Cantwell Smith, in The Meaning and End of Religion, further illuminates this by arguing that the term Islam in the Quran denotes a personal act of commitment to God rather than a reified religious system. Smith contends that Muslim originally described anyone who sincerely submits to the Divine, regardless of their historical or cultural context, and that the institutionalization of Islam as a "religion" was a later historical development. Similarly, Fred Donner, in Muhammad and the Believers, suggests that the early community of Muslims was not a distinct religious group but a broader monotheistic movement inclusive of Jews, Christians, and others who shared a commitment to submission to one God. For Donner, the term Muslim initially carried a more fluid, ecumenical meaning, only later becoming associated with a specific confessional identity.
Quranic Universalism: Islam as Timeless Submission
The Quran presents Islam as the eternal way of submitting to God, a path followed by all prophets and righteous individuals across history. This is evident in several key verses:
• "Indeed, the religion with God is Islam." (Quran 3:19) Here, Islam refers not to the institutionalized religion of 7th-century Arabia but to the primordial act of surrendering to God, which the Quran considers the essence of true religion.
• "When his Lord said to [Abraham], 'Submit (Aslim),' he said, 'I have submitted (Aslamtu) to the Lord of the worlds.'" (Quran 2:131) Abraham is described as a Muslim, not in a socio-religious sense but as one who fully surrenders to God.
• "Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but he was a hanif, a Muslim." (Quran 3:67) The term hanif (upright monotheist) further underscores Abraham’s metaphysical identity as a prototype of pure devotion, unbound by later religious labels.
These verses reveal that the Quran uses Islam and Muslim to denote universal qualities of faith, righteousness, and submission, not a specific religious system. Izutsu’s semantic analysis highlights that Muslim in these contexts is a "spiritual attitude" rather than a denominational label, reflecting a worldview where submission to God is the natural state of all creation. Smith complements this by noting that the Quran’s use of Islam transcends historical particularity, embracing all who align with divine guidance. Donner’s historical perspective reinforces this, suggesting that the early Muslim community included monotheists from various traditions, united by their shared commitment to Islam as submission rather than a formalized creed. Hermeneutically, this suggests that the Quran envisions Islam as a perennial truth, manifested in various forms across human history. Figures like Moses, Jesus, and even pre-Islamic prophets are implicitly included in this framework, as their missions aligned with the same divine call to submission (e.g., Quran 42:13).
The Prophetic Mission of Muhammad: Catalyst, Not Founder
Prophet Muhammad’s role in the Quranic narrative is not that of a founder of a new religion but as a messenger who reaffirmed and clarified the eternal message of submission. The Quran describes him as a "bringer of good tidings and a warner" (Quran 33:45) and a "mercy to the worlds" (Quran 21:107), tasked with delivering divine guidance to his people. His mission was to restore the monotheistic legacy of earlier prophets, particularly in the context of Arabian polytheism and tribal fragmentation.
• Muhammad is instructed to say, "I am not something original among the messengers, nor do I know what will be done with me or with you. I only follow what is revealed to me." (Quran 46:9) This humility underscores that Muhammad’s role was to transmit divine revelation, not to create a novel religious system.
• Continuity with Previous Revelations: The Quran repeatedly affirms its connection to earlier scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospel (e.g., Quran 5:44–48), positioning itself as a confirmation of the same universal truth.
Hermeneutically, Muhammad’s mission is best understood as a historical moment within the broader continuum of divine guidance. Izutsu argues that Muhammad’s role was to articulate the Quranic worldview, which reframes submission as a universal ethic rather than a new institutional construct. Smith echoes this, suggesting that Muhammad’s mission was to call people to the "cumulative tradition" of submission, not to establish a bounded religion. Donner’s research supports this by portraying the early Muslim community as a "Believers’ movement" that initially included Jews and Christians who accepted Muhammad’s prophetic message, only later crystallizing into a distinct Islamic identity. The Quran’s revelation provided a linguistic and cultural framework for articulating Islam in 7th-century Arabia, but it did not mark the invention of a new religion. Instead, it crystallized the perennial concept of submission into a form suited to its immediate context.
From Movement to Institution: The Formative History of Islam
The institutionalization of Islam as a distinct religion occurred after Muhammad’s death, through a complex process of theological, political, and cultural developments. The early Muslim community, initially a loose coalition of believers united by faith, gradually evolved into a structured religious system. Key stages in this formative history include:
In Muhammad’s lifetime, his followers were not called Muslims in a formal denominational sense but were referred to as mu’minun (believers) or those who followed the guidance of the Quran (e.g., Quran 49:14). The community was defined by shared commitment to monotheism, prayer, charity, and moral conduct, not by rigid institutional structures. This fluidity aligns with the Quranic vision of Islam as a universal path, not a sectarian identity. Donner’s analysis underscores this, noting that the early community was inclusive of other monotheists, reflecting a broader understanding of Muslim as anyone committed to righteous submission.
Smith’s work highlights this shift, arguing that the reification of Islam as a "religion" was a post-Muhammad phenomenon driven by the need for social and political cohesion.
As Islam spread beyond Arabia into regions like Persia, Byzantium, and North Africa, it encountered diverse cultural and religious traditions. This necessitated theological and practical adaptations:
• Incorporation of Local Practices: Elements of Persian administration, Greek philosophy, and Christian mysticism influenced Islamic thought, particularly in the development of kalam (theology) and tasawwuf (Sufism).
• Sectarian Differentiation: By the 8th and 9th centuries, theological disputes gave rise to distinct groups like Sunni, Shia, and Kharijite communities, each interpreting Islam differently. This hermeneutical multiplicity reflects the dynamic nature of Islam’s development.
These processes illustrate that the institutional form of Islam was shaped by historical contingencies, not a single founding moment. Izutsu’s focus on the Quran’s semantic field suggests that these adaptations were hermeneutical responses to the core concept of taslim, reinterpreted in new cultural contexts.
Quranic Inclusivity
The Quran’s universalist perspective resonates with the concept of the perennial philosophy, which posits a single, universal truth underlying all authentic religious traditions. The Quran supports this view by affirming that divine guidance was sent to every nation:
• "We sent messengers to every nation, that they might worship God and avoid false deities." (Quran 10:47)
• "There is no nation but a warner has passed among them." (Quran 35:24)
These verses suggest that the essence of Islam—submission to the Divine—has been revealed in various forms across cultures and eras. From a hermeneutical standpoint, figures like Buddha, Zoroaster, or Laozi could be seen as Muslims in the Quranic sense if their teachings aligned with monotheism and righteous living, even if they operated outside the Abrahamic tradition. Smith’s scholarship strongly supports this inclusivity, arguing that the Quran’s concept of Islam is a "personal faith" that transcends institutional boundaries, embracing all who live in submission to God. Izutsu’s analysis of the Quranic worldview further reinforces this, describing Islam as a universal ethical stance that finds expression in diverse historical forms. Donner’s historical reconstruction complements this by suggesting that the early Muslim community’s ecumenical nature reflected this Quranic universalism, only later narrowing into a distinct religious identity.
Islam as a Historical and Universal Phenomenon
A hermeneutical reading of the Quran, enriched by the insights of Izutsu, Smith, and Donner, reveals that Islam is both a timeless spiritual orientation and a historical phenomenon. In its perennial sense, Islam is the primordial state of harmony with the Divine, embodied by all who submit to God across time. In its historical sense, Islam as a religion emerged through a gradual process of communal formation, theological codification, and cultural adaptation following Muhammad’s mission.
Prophet Muhammad did not "found" Islam in the sense of creating a new religion ex nihilo. Rather, he served as a conduit for divine revelation, articulating the eternal message of submission in a form accessible to his context. The institutionalization of Islam—complete with its scriptures, laws, and communal identity—was the work of his followers, shaped by historical necessities and hermeneutical engagements with the Quranic text. Izutsu’s emphasis on taslim as a dynamic process, Smith’s focus on personal faith over institutional religion, and Donner’s portrayal of an inclusive early community all underscore that Islam and Muslim were originally universal concepts, only later formalized into a distinct religious system.
Thus, Islam is best understood as a historical development rooted in a universal truth. It represents a legacy of faith that transcends its 7th-century origins, inviting all who seek peace and wholeness through submission to the Divine to participate in its timeless vision.
Bibliography
Donner, Fred M. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Izutsu, Toshihiko. God and Man in the Qur’an: Semantics of the Qur’anic Weltanschauung. Tokyo: Keio University Press, 1964.
Izutsu, Toshihiko. Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’ān. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002.
Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. The Meaning and End of Religion: A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind. New York: Macmillan, 1963.
The Qur’an. Translated by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism. With a deep commitment to advancing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress, his work aims to foster a just society, encourage critical thinking, and promote inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He is dedicated to creating pathways for meaningful social change and intellectual growth through his scholarship.
URL: https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/historical-development-quranic-universalism/d/135993
New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism
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