Reclaiming Queen Sheba from Legend and Patriarchal Readings

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 1 May 2025 The Quranic narrative concerning the Queen of Sheba, elaborated primarily within verses 27:20-44, introduces one of the most prominent female figures in the scripture. Her encounter with Prophet Solomon (Sulayman) serves as a rich narrative that explores themes of sovereignty, wisdom, diplomatic engagement, and spiritual awakening. She stands as a compelling figure whose significance resonates deeply within contemporary interpretive frameworks grounded in justice and reason. However, the inherent strength and agency evident in the Quranic portrayal have frequently been obscured by traditional interpretations. Often shaped by patriarchal socio-cultural milieu and influenced by extra-Quranic materials, particularly Isra'iliyyat (Judeo-Christian lore), these readings tend to relegate the Queen to a subordinate role, primarily serving to validate Solomon's prophetic status, wisdom, and divinely bestowed power. Alternatively, she is embellished with legendary folklore – tales concerning her origins, supposed physical peculiarities, feminine susceptibility, or an eventual marriage to Solomon – details conspicuously absent from the Quranic text itself, often serving to diminish her stature and contain her independence within conventional hierarchical norms. This reality necessitates a critical hermeneutical response to counter such interpretations. Fundamentally rooted in the core Islamic principle of Tawhid (the absolute oneness and sovereignty of God), which inherently negates any claim to divinely sanctioned human hierarchy, including gender hierarchy, and deeply committed to the Quranic emphasis on Adl (justice), this interpretive approach seeks to reread the scripture through a lens that actively affirms human equality and illuminates the agency of figures like the Queen. This involves a critical examination of traditional exegesis (Tafsir), identifying embedded cultural or patriarchal biases and seeking interpretations consonant with the Quran's overarching message of human dignity, intellectual capacity, and spiritual equality for all, irrespective of gender. This approach finds considerable synergy with the spirit and methodologies characteristic of Progressive Quranic exegesis, which champions reason, context, ethical objectives (Maqasid), and critical engagement. This paper undertakes such a hermeneutical analysis of the Queen of Sheba narrative (27:20-44), arguing that the Quran itself showcases her as a powerful paradigm of leadership and empowered subjectivity. This Quranic portrayal directly challenges restrictive interpretations, particularly those derived from traditions like the Abu-Bakr hadith ("Never will a people succeed who appoint a woman as their leader," Bukhari 4425), demonstrating the hadith's fragility when juxtaposed with the Quran's own narrative. Hermeneutic of Justice and Reason A clear understanding of the interpretive framework is paramount before engaging in the textual analysis. This study employs a Progressive hermeneutic grounded in core Islamic principles and committed to discerning the Quran's message of justice and human equality. It seeks to excavate these principles believed to be inherent within the sacred text and the broader Islamic ethical tradition, rather than imposing external ideologies. Key operational principles guiding this approach include: • Tawhidic Paradigm: The foundational principle of God's absolute oneness implies the fundamental ontological equality of all human beings as God's creation (khalq) and vicegerents (khulafa') on Earth. Attributing inherent superiority or authority based on lineage, status, or gender contradicts this core theological tenet. Consequently, interpretations suggesting inherent deficiency, subordination, or limited capacity for any group are subjected to critical scrutiny based on this primary principle. • Justice (Adl): The Quran repeatedly emphasizes justice as a core divine mandate and ethical imperative (e.g., 4:135, 5:8, 16:90). This hermeneutic applies the principle of Adl universally, contending that interpretations endorsing or perpetuating injustice, including gender injustice, are incompatible with the Quran's fundamental ethical trajectory and its overarching objectives. • Contextual Reading: Recognizing the Quran's revelation within a specific historical and socio-cultural milieu (7th-century Arabia) is crucial. This approach, consistent with Progressive exegesis, stresses the importance of distinguishing between universal, timeless principles and context-specific rulings, descriptions, or narratives. This involves sensitivity to linguistic nuances, social customs, political realities, and understanding the environment in which the text emerged to better grasp its universal message. • Holistic and Intra-textual Reading: Interpretations must strive for consistency with the Quran as a whole (reading the Quran by the Quran). Verses are interpreted in light of other verses, preventing the isolation of specific passages to bolster preconceived notions or culturally biased agendas. Narratives involving prominent figures are read alongside others to discern overarching divine principles regarding human potential, responsibility, and relationship with God. • Critique of Biased Exegesis: This approach entails a critical engagement with the history of tafsir, acknowledging that classical commentators, despite their profound piety and scholarship, were inevitably products of their societies. Their interpretations may, at times, reflect prevailing cultural biases (including patriarchal ones) rather than solely the inherent meaning of the text. This critical stance extends to the often uncritical incorporation of Isra'iliyyat, which can carry undertones inconsistent with Quranic principles. Progressive exegesis furnishes complementary methodological tools and orientations that strongly support this justice-focused reading: • Primacy of Reason ('Aql): Progressives championed the indispensable role of reason in comprehending revelation, asserting the fundamental compatibility of faith and reason. This encourages interpretations that are logically coherent, ethically sound, and align with a rational understanding of the world. • Emphasis on Ethical Objectives (Maqasid al-Shari'ah): Progressive thinkers frequently focused on discerning the higher purposes and underlying ethical principles of Islamic teachings, such as justice, mercy, human dignity, and public welfare (maslaha). Interpretations are thus evaluated based on their congruence with these overarching objectives. • Historical Consciousness: Progressives underscored the need to understand the historical context of revelation and the subsequent development of Islamic law and thought. This facilitates a crucial distinction between the eternal divine message and its historical applications or interpretations. • Rejection of Taqlid (Blind Imitation): The Progressive call to move beyond unquestioning adherence to past scholarly opinions encourages fresh, direct engagement with the primary source (the Quran) utilizing contemporary knowledge and critical tools, guided by foundational principles. The synergy lies in the shared commitment to critical engagement, contextual understanding, an ethical focus on justice, and interpretive reform. This approach seeks a more authentic, relevant, and just understanding of the Quranic message, liberated from accumulated cultural biases. Applying this lens to the Queen of Sheba narrative enables an analysis that honours both the text's integrity and its potential for meanings aligned with universal human dignity. Deconstructing Traditional Overlays Before constructing a reading grounded in the Quranic text through a Progressive, justice-oriented lens, it is necessary to briefly acknowledge and critique the prevalent limiting tropes that have frequently coloured the understanding of the Queen of Sheba in traditional exegesis and popular imagination. While her intelligence is sometimes conceded, classical Tafsir and subsequent storytelling often frame her narrative in ways that ultimately reinforce hierarchical structures and diminish her independent political and spiritual stature. One persistent trope revolves around the interpretation of her "submission." Although the Quran unequivocally states her eventual submission to God (27:44), traditional readings have often conflated this act with submission to Solomon. Her own agency, intellectual process, and spiritual reasoning in reaching this conviction are frequently downplayed. A justice-focused reading meticulously highlights the precise wording of her declaration in 27:44: she submits explicitly "to God, Lord of the Worlds". The crucial phrase maʿa sulaymān ("with Solomon" or "alongside Solomon") signifies joining him in a shared state of submission to the same Divine Lord, indicating partnership in faith and spiritual equality before God, decisively not subordination to the male prophet. Another layer of distortion derives from Isra'iliyyat and associated folklore, introducing elements entirely absent from the Quranic account. Tales depicting Solomon's desire to marry her, or scrutinize her physical attributes, serve to domesticate her powerful image, reducing her political significance and reinforcing hierarchical control over female autonomy. An approach grounded in textual integrity rigorously insists on founding the interpretation solely within the confines of the Quranic text, decisively rejecting these extra-Quranic embellishments. The Quran presents the encounter as one between two sovereigns engaged in matters of faith, power, and governance – not romance or superficial concerns. Furthermore, the Queen's actions themselves have sometimes been interpreted through a diminutive lens. Her strategic decision to send a gift (27:35) might be misconstrued as bribery or weakness, rather than recognized as calculated diplomacy. Her measured reaction upon recognizing her altered throne (27:42) or her initial misperception of the glass floor (27:44) might be unfairly portrayed as gullibility, rather than understood as rational responses to extraordinary, divinely-enabled events. By critically identifying and dismantling these limiting overlays, a critical hermeneutic clears the necessary space for a reading that fully respects and appreciates the Queen's portrayal as presented within the Quran itself. Progressive Re-Reading Focused on Justice and Agency Analysing the Quranic verses pertaining to the Queen of Sheba (primarily 27:20-44) through an interpretive lens emphasizing reason, context, justice, and agency reveals a figure possessing remarkable capacity and integrity. A. Legitimate Sovereignty and Political Authority (27:23) The narrative commences with the Hudud reporting to Solomon about the kingdom of Saba: "I found ['wajadtu'] a woman ruling over them ['imraʾatan tamlikuhum'], and she has been given of everything ['ūtiyat min kulli shayʾin'], and she possesses a mighty throne ['wa-lahāʿarshun ʿaẓīm']" (27:23). Significantly, the Quran presents her ruler-ship as an objective statement of fact, devoid of any accompanying condemnation or questioning based solely on her being a woman. The Quran's neutral, factual description strongly supports the view that leadership capacity is not determined by sex. This verse provides direct, unambiguous Quranic acknowledgment of a woman holding supreme political power, serving as a powerful counter-argument against interpretations seeking to limit human potential based on gender. B. Rationality, Consultation (Shura), and Deliberation (27:29-34) Upon receiving Solomon's authoritative letter (27:29-31), the Queen refrains from reacting impulsively. Instead, she initiates consultation (Shura) with her advisors: "She said, 'O chieftains, advise me ['aftūnī'] in my affair; I would not decide ['mā kuntu qāṭiʿatan'] a matter until you witness [and advise] me ['ḥattā tashhadūn']'" (27:32). Her advisors pledge loyalty but defer the ultimate decision back to her sovereign authority (27:33). The Queen then displays sharp political acumen: "She said, 'Indeed kings, when they enter a city, ruin it ['afsaduha']. And thus do they behave ['wa-kadhālika yafʿalūn']'" (27:34). This pragmatic observation reflects a desire to avoid war. Progressives championing rational governance find in the Queen an exemplary ruler. Her reliance on consultation, pragmatic assessment, and prioritization of her people's welfare highlight her wisdom. These verses firmly establish her intellectual capacity and political competence, directly refuting assumptions suggesting women are unsuited for complex decision-making or leadership. C. Astute Diplomacy and Strategic Assessment (27:35) Faced with Solomon's power, the Queen opts for sophisticated diplomacy: "But indeed, I will send to them a gift ['Fa-Nāẓiratun Bi-Ma Yarjiʿu L-Mursalūn'] and see with what [reply] the messengers return" (27:35). This represents a calculated diplomatic probe – testing Solomon's character, buying time, and keeping communication open to avert conflict. This diplomatic initiative underscores the Queen's proactive agency and independent decision-making capacity. She demonstrates a clear preference for diplomacy over militarism, presented as wise and effective leadership. D. Intellectual Curiosity and the Pursuit of Truth (27:41-42) Solomon's subtle alteration of her throne tests her intellect. Asked, "Is your throne like this? ['a-hākadhā ʿarshuki']" (27:42), her response is precise: "She said, '[It is] as though it is it' ['qālat kaʾannahu huwa']" (27:42). She acknowledges the resemblance without jumping to conclusions, showing observation and analytical thinking. This response counters prejudicial views about gendered intellectual capacity. She is presented not merely as a ruler, but as an active seeker of truth, undertaking a journey to investigate extraordinary claims. Her intellectual engagement is portrayed as central to her subsequent journey towards faith. E. Autonomous Spiritual Transformation and Submission to God (27:44) The climax occurs when she mistakes Solomon's glass floor for water. Upon clarification, she declares: "She said, 'My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself ['Rabbi Innī Ẓalamtu Nafsī'], and I submit with Solomon to God, Lord of the worlds ['Wa-Aslamtu Maʿa Sulaymāna Li-Llāhi Rabbi L-ʿālamīn']'" (27:44). This moment of corrected perception catalyses her realization. Progressive exegesis emphasizes Tawhid and individual responsibility; her conversion is a rational choice based on evidence. Crucially, her submission (Islam) is explicitly directed Li-Llāhi (to God). The phrase Maʿa Sulaymān (with/alongside Solomon) signifies joining him in shared submission, establishing spiritual equality, not subordination. This precise phrasing safeguards her autonomy. Her spiritual journey is her own, an independent act of conscience and intellect, providing a potent Quranic model of individual spiritual agency. Deconstructing the Abu-Bakr Hadith Having established the Quran's powerful affirmation of Queen Sheba's leadership through this Progressive lens, grounded in justice and reason, we now turn to a direct critique of the Abu-Bakr hadith ("Never will a people succeed who appoint a woman as their leader," Bukhari 4425), whose claims stand in stark opposition to this Quranic paradigm. Progressive exegetes, employing critical historical and textual analysis, highlight several factors undermining its claim to universal, ahistorical authority: 1. Single Narrator Transmission (Ahad): The hadith is transmitted through a single chain initially. Progressive critics argue that Ahad reports, especially those with significant implications conflicting with broader Quranic principles (like the Sheba narrative), lack the certainty required for universal prohibitions. The risk of error or bias is higher. 2. The Narrator's Credibility: The reliability of Abu-Bakr (Nufay' ibn al-Harith) is historically questioned. Classical sources note his punishment for false accusation (Qadhf), leading some authorities to deem his testimony inadmissible. This historical blemish raises legitimate concerns for interpreters prioritizing stringent verification. 3. Timing and Political Context: Abu-Bakr reportedly recalled this statement decade after the Prophet’s death, introducing memory concerns. Crucially, the context is often linked to the political turmoil following the Persian emperor Kisra's death and his daughter Buran's brief ascension. The statement could be a specific commentary on that perceived instability in a rival empire, not a timeless decree. Progressive scholars also note potential political motives, possibly linking the narration to delegitimizing Aisha's role during the Battle of the Camel. This highlights the danger of decontextualizing hadith. 4. Contradiction with Quranic Principles and Precedent: This is the most critical point. The hadith directly contradicts the Quranic narrative of Queen Sheba, which implicitly endorses successful female leadership. The Quran bases leadership on merit (knowledge, capability, piety, justice – e.g., 2:247, 4:58, 28:26), not gender, and promotes a fundamental egalitarian ethos (e.g., 4:1, 33:35). Accepting the hadith's ban requires ignoring or diminishing the Quranic precedent of Bilqis. Progressive approaches insist the Quran is the ultimate criterion (al-Furqan); conflicting hadith must be critically re-evaluated as context-specific, weak, or misinterpreted. The Quran’s silence on any inherent flaw in Bilqis's rule because she was a woman is profoundly significant, refuting the hadith’s claim. The Abu-Bakr hadith, interpreted as a universal ban, violates the Quranic principle of justice ('adl) by arbitrarily excluding women based on gender, disregarding the Quran's emphasis on individual capabilities. It fosters a binary hierarchy challenged by the Quran’s own narratives featuring capable women like Bilqis. Therefore, the Progressive hermeneutical approach affirms Quranic supremacy, contextualizes the hadith historically and politically, critiques its transmission, and upholds Quranic ethics of justice and meritocracy over the hadith's restrictive generalization. It views the hadith as a historical report reflecting specific circumstances, not a divine, eternal prohibition. From Anomaly to Archetype – Affirming Quranic Justice The re-reading of the Queen of Sheba's narrative through a Progressive interpretive approach focused on justice and agency yields a figure dramatically different from diminished portrayals. The Quran itself presents her unequivocally as a legitimate and capable Head of State, a rational leader prioritizing consultation, an astute diplomat, an intellectually curious seeker of truth, and an autonomous spiritual individual whose submission is consciously directed to God, placing her alongside, not under, God's prophet in faith. This interpretation, grounded firmly in the Quranic text (27:20-44), holds profound significance. It serves as an undeniable Quranic paradigm demonstrating that leadership, wisdom, and rational decision-making are exemplified within the Quran itself, irrespective of gender. Consequently, the assertion derived from the Abu-Bakr hadith – that female leadership guarantees failure – crumbles under the weight of this direct Quranic evidence and the critical hermeneutical analysis exposing the hadith's fragility based on transmission, narrator reliability, context, and direct contradiction with Quranic principles. To universalize the Abu-Bakr hadith is to ignore the Quran's own precedent and impose patriarchal constraints foreign to the scripture's core message of justice and human dignity. The story of Bilqis challenges interpretations seeking to confine individuals based on gender or subordinate their agency. Her commitment to Shura aligns with calls for inclusive governance, and her personal spiritual journey underscores the direct relationship between the individual and God, empowering individuals to claim their own spiritual authority through reason and conviction. The Progressive emphasis on reason, ethics, and context allows this interpretation to resonate strongly, demonstrating the Quran's timeless relevance and challenging inequitable structures by promoting equality as an intrinsic Islamic value. The Queen of Sheba, thus understood, is transformed from a potential anomaly into an enduring Quranic archetype – a testament to the fact that leadership, wisdom, and spiritual authority are not predicated on gender. She stands as a powerful Quranic affirmation of human agency and integrity, offering potent inspiration for contemporary Muslims committed to building societies based on the Quranic principles of justice, consultation, and the equal dignity of all human beings before God. ---- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism. With a deep commitment to advancing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress, his work aims to foster a just society, encourage critical thinking, and promote inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. He is dedicated to creating pathways for meaningful social change and intellectual growth through his scholarship. 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