The Indispensable Foundation: Philosophy and Metaphysics as the Bedrock of Islamic Theology

By Adis Duderija, New Age Islam 22 April 2025 The edifice of Islamic theology, with its majestic pronouncements on the nature of the Divine, its often intricate understanding of God’s attributes, and its comprehensive worldview, often appears to stand firmly upon the twin pillars of the Quran and the Sunna. Many within the faith, particularly those adhering to fundamentalist or strict traditionalist interpretations, maintain that these sacred texts alone provide a sufficient and objective basis for a complete theological system. However, a closer examination of the historical and intellectual currents that have shaped Islamic thought reveals a deeper, often unacknowledged, foundation: the indispensable role of philosophy and metaphysics. To imagine that a coherent and sophisticated understanding of God and His relationship with the world can be constructed solely from scriptural pronouncements, devoid of the rigorous conceptual tools and frameworks offered by philosophy, is a profoundly naive proposition. The very act of interpreting and systematizing religious texts, especially when grappling with abstract concepts like the Divine attributes, inherently involves philosophical assumptions and metaphysical commitments. Even the arguably most fundamental concept in Islamic theology, Tawhid (God’s Unicity) has been subject to vary different interpretations and conceptualisations. The challenge of describing God is a universal one for monotheistic believers. While the Quran and Sunna offer numerous and evocative descriptions of God, they also present a unique set of interpretive challenges. How are believers to reconcile seemingly anthropomorphic descriptions with the fundamental tenet of God’s absolute transcendence? How can the Divine attributes of justice and mercy, power and knowledge, be understood in a way that is both faithful to the scriptural witness and rationally coherent? These are not questions that can be answered through simple recitation or literal application of the scriptural texts. Instead, they necessitate a deeper engagement with the tools of reason and philosophical inquiry. From the earliest centuries of Islam, Muslim intellectuals recognized this inherent need. Confronted with a rich intellectual landscape that included the sophisticated philosophical systems of ancient Greece, thinkers embarked on a project of intellectual synthesis. They drew extensively from Aristotelian and Neoplatonic thought, utilizing concepts like substance and accident, essence and existence, potentiality and actuality, to articulate their theological understandings. This was not a matter of simply borrowing foreign ideas; rather, it was a deliberate effort to develop a robust and rationally defensible framework for understanding the Divine in light of revelation. The development of Islamic metaphysics, with its intricate discussions on the nature of being, causality, and the hierarchy of existence, became inextricably linked with the articulation of God’s nature and attributes. Consider, for instance, the pivotal debates surrounding divine omniscience. The Quran and hadith unequivocally affirm God’s all-encompassing knowledge. Yet, the precise nature of this knowledge – particularly God’s knowledge of particular events, future contingencies, and human free will – became a subject of intense theological and philosophical debate. To grapple with these complexities, thinkers turned to philosophical discussions on the nature of knowledge itself. They explored questions of how knowledge relates to its object, the distinction between universal and particular knowledge, and the implications of God’s eternal and immutable nature for His knowledge of a changing world. Concepts developed within philosophical traditions, such as different modes of knowing and the relationship between essence and existence, provided the intellectual scaffolding for constructing nuanced theological positions on divine omniscience. To suggest that these intricate theological formulations arose purely from a literal reading of scripture, without the mediating influence of philosophical concepts and logical reasoning, ignores the clear historical and intellectual trajectory of Islamic thought. Similarly, the doctrine of divine simplicity provides a compelling example of the foundational role of philosophy in Islamic theology. The idea that God is absolutely simple, devoid of any composition or multiplicity, was a prominent concept in early Islamic philosophical circles, drawing heavily from Neoplatonic ideas about the ultimate unity of the First Principle. This philosophical understanding of divine simplicity had profound implications for how God’s attributes were conceived. If God is absolutely simple, how can we speak of Him possessing multiple attributes like power, wisdom, and mercy? Early Muslim philosophers and theologians engaged in sophisticated metaphysical reasoning to reconcile the affirmation of multiple divine attributes with the doctrine of divine simplicity, often arguing that these attributes are not distinct entities within God’s essence but rather different aspects of His unified being. The critiques leveled against the philosophical understanding of divine simplicity also relied heavily on philosophical arguments, questioning the intelligibility and consequences of such a doctrine. These debates clearly demonstrate that even seemingly fundamental theological tenets are deeply intertwined with philosophical and metaphysical considerations. The notion that one can develop a systematic and objective Islamic theology simply based on the Quran and hadith overlooks the inherent need for interpretation and the unavoidable influence of pre-existing philosophical and metaphysical conceptual frameworks. The sacred texts are expressed in human language and require careful understanding and application. The very act of selecting certain Quranic verses or hadiths as more relevant to a particular theological point, or of drawing connections between different scriptural passages, involves interpretive choices that are often guided by underlying philosophical assumptions about coherence, consistency, and the nature of reality. Furthermore, the historical development of Islamic jurisprudence and theology reveals a constant engagement with reason and logical deduction. Legal scholars, for instance, developed sophisticated methodologies for deriving rulings from the Quran and Sunna, employing principles of analogy (Qiyas), consensus (Ijma), and rational preference (Istislah). These methodologies themselves are rooted in principles of logic and reasoning, demonstrating that even in areas traditionally seen as directly derived from scripture, rational inquiry plays a crucial role. To claim that a purely scriptural approach can yield an objective theology also disregards the diversity of interpretations that have always existed within Islam. Different schools of thought and theological traditions have emerged, each offering its own understanding of the Quran and Sunna. These variations often stem from differing philosophical assumptions and metaphysical commitments. For example, debates about free will versus predestination within Islamic theology have been deeply influenced by different philosophical understandings of causality and human agency. To ignore this rich history of intellectual engagement and suggest a singular, objective theology derived solely from the texts is to present a simplified and ultimately inaccurate picture of Islamic thought. Moreover, the very language used to discuss theological concepts often carries philosophical baggage. Terms like “essence,” “existence,” “substance,” and “accident,” which are frequently employed in theological discourse, have specific meanings and histories within philosophical traditions. To utilise these terms without acknowledging their philosophical underpinnings is to risk misunderstanding and imprecision. A truly rigorous theological inquiry must be aware of the philosophical tools it employs and the assumptions that underlie its conceptual framework. In conclusion, while the Quran is undoubtedly the foundational source of Islamic faith, the development of a systematic and sophisticated Islamic theology has always been deeply intertwined with philosophy and metaphysics. The very act of interpreting scripture, grappling with complex theological questions like the nature of Divine attributes, and constructing coherent theological systems necessitates the use of reason, logic, and philosophical concepts. To believe that one can simply extract an objective theology directly from the sacred texts, devoid of any philosophical mediation, is to underestimate the inherent challenges of interpretation, ignore the historical development of Islamic thought, and overlook the indispensable role of reason in understanding the Divine. Philosophy and metaphysics are not external additions to Islamic theology; they are the very intellectual tools that have enabled and continue to enable believers to deepen their understanding of God and His relationship with the world. The ongoing engagement with philosophical inquiry, both within and outside the Islamic tradition, remains crucial for the continued vitality and intellectual rigor of Islamic theological discourse. ------ Checkout Dr. Adis Duderija’s personal website at: https://dradisduderija.com/ A decades old patron of New Age Islam, Dr Adis Duderija is a Senior Lecturer in the Study of Islam and Society, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Science; Senior Fellow Centre for Interfaith and Intercultural Dialogue, Griffith University | Nathan | Queensland | Australia. His forthcoming books are (co-edited) - Shame, Modesty, and Honour in Islam and Interfaith Engagement beyond the Divide (Springer) URL: https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/philosophy-metaphysics-islamic-theology/d/135259 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism