The Logical Fallacy Of “Appeal To Authority”

By Naseer Ahmed, New Age Islam 10 April 2024 The earliest evidence of religious thought is based on the ritual treatment of the dead. Most animals display only a casual interest in their species' dead, so ritual burial represents a significant change in human behaviour. The Quran talks about Adam and his progeny and the guidance sent to them or instructions on Allah’s religion. Is it a coincidence that it deals explicitly with guiding one of Adam’s sons on the burial of the dead, considered the first evidence of religious thought? ------- The appeal to authority fallacy is the logical fallacy of claiming that because an expert said something is true, it must be true. However, it's crucial to understand the context in which the expert's opinion was formed, as this can significantly impact the validity of their statement. Russell was a mathematician and logician, not a moral philosopher. Experts need to stay within their field of expertise, as venturing into unfamiliar territory can lead to the expression of misguided opinions, as Russell did in his quote below: "Those, blinded by god and religion, will never concede that morality evolved without any god, religion and scripture." Think of it this way: You wouldn't ask a plumber for advice on your car's engine, would you? Just because they're skilled in one area doesn't mean they're an authority in everything. Similarly, a wise layman wouldn't consult Russell on religion and moral philosophy, just as he wouldn't go to a cobbler to get a haircut, no matter how skilled the cobbler may be in repairing shoes. As discussed in Bertrand Russell’s Error, he formed his opinion about religious morality from Christian moral rules that disallow divorce and other inflexible regulations that can cause avoidable human suffering and on the view of the Church that “morality has nothing to do with human happiness or suffering”. It's important to note that the function of morality in both religion and philosophy is to promote the greatest happiness, which the Church dismisses as irrelevant. Let's take a deeper look at Russell's critique. Had he delved into the teachings of other religions, he might have discovered that divorce is not universally condemned. For instance, in Islam and Judaism, it is permissible. This raises an important point: when evaluating an expert's opinion, it's crucial to consider multiple perspectives. The answer to why divorce is regarded as a sacrament in Christianity lies in the transition of the Romans from Paganism to Christianity, a process that incorporated many Pagan customs and rituals. Even their festivals have pagan origins. Therefore, Russell's critique is not on a divine law but a man-made custom – not on divine wisdom but on human stupidity. Russell, however, is unaware of his blunder. Russell's critique of Christianity was not without personal bias. His frustration with the Church's Commandments, binding on the faithful, was evident. This starkly contrasts Islam, where a fatwa is considered no more than a non-binding human opinion. His narrow focus on Christianity, a religion that directly affected him and his immediate society, led him to overlook the broader context of religious practices. His attempt to generalize from his particular experience is a common failing, even among wise men. Evidence That Religion Began With Adam The earliest evidence of religious thought is based on the ritual treatment of the dead. Most animals display only a casual interest in their species' dead, so ritual burial represents a significant change in human behaviour. The Quran talks about Adam and his progeny and the guidance sent to them or instructions on Allah’s religion. Is it a coincidence that it deals explicitly with guiding one of Adam’s sons on the burial of the dead, considered the first evidence of religious thought? (5:27) Recite to them the truth of the story of the two sons of Adam. Behold! they each presented a sacrifice (to Allah): It was accepted from one, but not from the other. Said the latter: "Be sure I will slay thee." "Surely," said the former, "Allah doth accept of the sacrifice of those who are righteous. (28) "If thou dost stretch thy hand against me, to slay me, it is not for me to stretch my hand against thee to slay thee: for I do fear Allah, the cherisher of the worlds. (29) "For me, I intend to let thee draw on thyself my sin as well as thine, for thou wilt be among the companions of the fire, and that is the reward of those who do wrong." (30) The (selfish) soul of the other led him to the murder of his brother: he murdered him, and became (himself) one of the lost ones. (31) Then Allah sent a raven, who scratched the ground, to show him how to hide the dead body of his brother. "Woe is me!" said he; "Was I not even able to be as this raven, and to hide the dead body of my brother?" then he became full of regrets- (32) On that account: We ordained for the Children of Israel that if any one slew a person - unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land - it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people. Then although there came to them Our messengers with clear signs, yet, even after that, many of them continued to commit excesses in the land. The verses above underline man’s dependence on guidance from Allah right from the time of Adam. Allah sometimes guides us by the example of a creature like a raven, as in the example above. Man has learnt many things by copying from nature. The verse 5:31 shows that Allah’s instructions are not only in the form of the revealed scriptures but also in the examples Allah has provided in nature for man to learn from. Man has not learnt anything from any source other than from a study of his universe and revealed scriptures. Yet, he is ungrateful to Allah and considers himself self-sufficient, which is why Allah says in the very first revelations to Muhammad: Surah 96 (1) Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- (2) Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: (3) Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- (4) He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- (5) Taught man that which he knew not. (6) Nay, but man doth transgress all bounds, (7) In that he looketh upon himself as self-sufficient. (8) Verily, to thy Lord is the return (of all). (9) Seest thou one who forbids- (10) A votary when he (turns) to pray? (11) Seest thou if he is on (the road of) Guidance?- (12) Or enjoins Righteousness? (13) Seest thou if he denies (Truth) and turns away? (14) Knoweth he not that Allah doth see? (15) Let him beware! If he desist not, We will drag him by the forelock,- (16) A lying, sinful forelock! (17) Then, let him call (for help) to his council (of comrades): (18) We will call on the angels of punishment (to deal with him)! (19) Day, heed him not: But bow down in adoration, and bring thyself the closer (to Allah)! Some animals also display extraordinary cognitive powers and problem-solving skills. Still, man alone can learn cumulatively by recording what he has learned and passing it on to others. Is it, therefore, a coincidence that Allah should mention the gift of writing to man? The Unique Gift Of Human Speech Also, consider the verses: (55:1) (Allah) Most Gracious! (2) It is He Who has taught the Qur´an. (3) He has created man: (4) He has taught him speech. Speech is not unique to humans. Why does the Quran, therefore, mention speech? What is unique about human speech/languages that Allah should mention the teaching of speech as a special favour to mankind? The following is from Noah Harari’s book “Sapiens”: “What was the modern man’s secret of success? How did we settle so rapidly in many distant and ecologically different habitats? How did we push all other human species into oblivion? Why couldn’t the strong, brainy, cold-proof Neanderthals survive our onslaught? The debate continues to rage. The most likely answer is the very thing that makes the debate possible: The modern man conquered the world thanks to its unique language. The internal structure of the brains of the previous human beings before the “Cognitive Revolution” probably differed from ours. They looked like us, but their cognitive abilities – learning, remembering, communicating – were far more limited. Teaching such humans English, persuading them of the truth of Christian dogma, or getting them to understand the theory of evolution would probably have been hopeless undertakings. But then, beginning about 70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens started doing extraordinary things. Around that date, Sapiens bands left Africa for a second time. This time, they drove the Neanderthals and all other human species not only from the Middle East but from the face of the earth. Within a remarkably short period, Sapiens reached Europe and East Asia. About 45,000 years ago, they crossed the open sea and landed in Australia – a continent hitherto untouched by humans. The period from about 70,000 years ago to about 30,000 years ago witnessed the invention of boats, oil lamps, bows and arrows and needles (essential for sewing warm clothing). The first objects that can reliably be called art date from this era, as does the first clear evidence for religion, commerce and social stratification. Most researchers believe that these unprecedented accomplishments were the product of a revolution in Sapiens’ cognitive abilities. They maintain that the people who drove the Neanderthals to extinction settled in Australia and carved the Stadel lion-man were as intelligent, creative and sensitive as we are. If we were to come across the artists of the Stadel Cave, we could learn their language and they ours. We’d be able to explain to them everything we know – from the adventures of Alice in Wonderland to the paradoxes of quantum physics – and they could teach us how their people view the world. The appearance of new ways of thinking and communicating, between 70,000 and 30,000 years ago, constitutes the Cognitive Revolution. What caused it? We’re not sure. The most commonly believed theory argues that accidental genetic mutations changed the inner wiring of the brains of Sapiens, enabling them to think in unprecedented ways and to communicate using an altogether new type of language. We might call it the Tree of Knowledge mutation. Why did it occur in Sapiens DNA rather than in that of Neanderthals? It was a matter of pure chance, as far as we can tell. But it’s more important to understand the consequences of the Tree of Knowledge mutation than its causes. What was so special about the new Sapiens language that it enabled us to conquer the world?* It was not the first language. Every animal has some language. Even insects, such as bees and ants, know how to communicate in sophisticated ways, informing one another of the whereabouts of food. Neither was it the first vocal language. Many animals, including all ape and monkey species, have vocal languages. For example, green monkeys use calls of various kinds to communicate. Zoologists have identified one call that means, ‘Careful! An eagle!’ A slightly different call warns, ‘Careful! A lion!’ When researchers played a recording of the first call to a group of monkeys, the monkeys stopped what they were doing and looked upward in fear. When the same group heard a recording of the second call, the lion warning, they quickly scrambled up a tree. Sapiens can produce many more distinct sounds than green monkeys, but whales and elephants have equally impressive abilities. A parrot can say anything Albert Einstein could say, as well as mimic the sounds of phones ringing, doors slamming, and sirens wailing. Whatever advantage Einstein had over a parrot, it wasn’t vocal. What, then, is so special about our language? The most common answer is that our language is amazingly supple. We can connect a limited number of sounds and signs to produce infinite sentences, each with a distinct meaning. We can thereby ingest, store and communicate a prodigious amount of information about the surrounding world. A green monkey can yell to its comrades, ‘Careful! A lion!’ But a modern human can tell her friends that this morning, near the bend in the river, she saw a lion tracking a herd of bison. She can then describe the exact location, including the different paths leading to the area. With this information, her band members can put their heads together and discuss whether they ought to approach the river to chase away the lion and hunt the bison. A second theory agrees that our unique language evolved to share information about the world.” From the Quran we learn that Indeed Adam Had A Lot Of Information To Share In the creation of the modern man, Adam, the Quran speaks of all these unique gifts that make them exceptional. The gift of speech, the gift of writing, the gift of learning from nature, and the sudden broadening of his vocabulary to include everything around him, which Harari calls “The tree of knowledge mutation”. (2:31) And He taught Adam the names of all things; then He placed them before the angels, and said: "Tell me the names of these if ye are right." (32) They said: "Glory to Thee, of knowledge We have none, save what Thou Hast taught us: In truth it is Thou Who art perfect in knowledge and wisdom." (33) He said: "O Adam! Tell them their names." When he had told them, Allah said: "Did I not tell you that I know the secrets of heaven and earth, and I know what ye reveal and what ye conceal?" (34) And behold, We said to the angels: "Bow down to Adam" and they bowed down. Not so Iblis: he refused and was haughty: He was of those who reject Faith. Conclusion: Science is unable to explain what caused the Cognitive Revolution. The Quran speaks about the creation of a man with the Cognitive abilities that science describes as caused by the Cognitive Revolution. The Quran proves that the required guidance to mankind, or “Allah’s Religion,” began with Adam. Scientific studies also confirm that religion is as old as the “Cognitive Revolution.” Therefore, religion and its morality are as old as Adam or as old as the “Cognitive Revolution.” Russell’s statement, “Those, blinded by God and religion, will never concede that morality evolved without any god, religion, and scripture," is, therefore, counterfactual and a result of his ignorance of the subject. He probably thinks religion started with Jesus (May peace be upon Jesus)! ----- A frequent contributor to NewAgeIslam.com, Naseer Ahmed is an Engineering graduate from IIT Kanpur and is an independent IT consultant after having served in both the Public and Private sector in responsible positions for over three decades. He has spent years studying Quran in-depth and made seminal contributions to its interpretation. 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