The Many Lives of Sunna: Rethinking a Foundational Islamic Concept

By Adis Duderija, New Age Islam 16 October 2025 In the contemporary Islamic world, few concepts are as central—and as contested—as Sunna. Often translated as “tradition” or “custom,” Sunna is widely understood today as the normative model of the Prophet Muhammad, preserved through Hadith literature. But this seemingly straightforward definition belies a complex and dynamic intellectual history. Far from being a fixed or monolithic category, Sunna has undergone profound transformations over the centuries, shaped by shifting theological, legal, political, and ethical concerns. Drawing on my own research and the contributions of scholars in the edited volume The Sunna and Its Status in Islamic Law (Palgrave, 2015), this essay explores the evolution of Sunna from its pre-Islamic roots to its modern reformulations. Using Reinhart Koselleck’s theory of conceptual history (Begriffsgeschichte), I argue that Sunna is best understood not as a static repository of prophetic sayings and actions, but as a polysemic and historically contingent concept—one that has been appropriated, redefined, and contested across time and space. Conceptual History and the Polysemy of Sunna Koselleck’s insights into the diachronic and synchronic dimensions of concepts are particularly illuminating when applied to Sunna. Concepts, he argues, are layered with temporal meanings and shaped by the linguistic and socio-political contexts in which they are used. They are never fully definable because they carry the sediment of past usages while being constantly reinterpreted in the present. Sunna, in this sense, is a textbook case of conceptual polysemy. In early Islamic history, it referred to a wide range of normative practices not just to the the behaviour of the Prophet (Sunna al-Nabi), but the policies of so called Rightly Guided Caliphs (Sunna al-Khulafa’), the customs of the early Muslim community (Sunna al-Mu’minin), and even general ethical conduct (Sunna as Just and righteous practice/ Path). It was invoked in legal, theological, political, and administrative contexts—often without any reference to Hadith or formal chains of transmission (isnad). From Fluid Practice to Fixed Text: The Early Generations In the generation of the Prophet and his Companions, Sunna was a living, embodied model of ethical and communal behaviour. It was ‘transmitted’/embodied orally or through direct observation, emphasizing values and practices rather than textual documentation. The early Muslims did not yet possess a formal science of Hadith, nor did they equate Sunna with authenticated reports. The Successors (second generation) continued this oral tradition, using Sunna to refer to normative practices rooted in the Qur’an and the Prophet’s example. It was employed in diverse ways—signifying political loyalty, legal norms, and communal consensus (‘amal). Importantly, Sunna remained distinct from Hadith, and its meaning was still fluid and contested. By the time of the early jurists (third generation), Sunna began to acquire a more legalistic character. It was increasingly used in jurisprudential contexts and began to be loosely linked to Hadith. Yet even then, it was not fully conflated with textual reports. Jurists referred to Sunna as the practices of the Prophet and early caliphs, norms accepted by scholars, and the antonym of bid‘ah (innovation). The Shafi‘i Revolution and the Codification of Sunna The turning point came with the codification era, particularly through the work of al-Shafi‘i (d. 820 CE), who formalized the epistemological link between Sunna and Hadith. For Shafi‘i, only Prophetic reports with sound isnads could constitute valid Sunna. This move was revolutionary: it excluded communal practice (‘amal), analogical reasoning (qiyas), and juristic preference (istihsan) from authoritative status unless backed by Hadith. This transformation—what Aisha Musa calls the “Sunnification of Hadith”—narrowed the scope of Sunna, turning it from a flexible, ethical, and communal concept into a textual and legalistic one. It also marginalized alternative epistemologies, such as those of the Mu‘tazilites, who emphasized reason and ethical coherence, or the Ibadis, who prioritized communal norms and historical memory. The result was a stabilization of Sunna as a Hadith-dependent legal category, particularly in Sunni orthodoxy. This process culminated in the Hanbali and Zahiri schools, which institutionalized a literalist and scripturalist approach to Sunna, rejecting speculative reasoning and emphasizing textual fidelity above all else. Alternative Visions: Rationalists, Ibadis, and Hanafis Yet this Hadith-centric model was never universally accepted. The Mu‘tazilites, for instance, reinterpreted Sunna through the lens of reason and ethics. For them, Sunna had to align with Qur’anic values and rational coherence. They distinguished between Sunna as Ethical Guide, Sunna as Rational Norm, and Sunna as Contextual Practice. When Hadith-based Sunna conflicted with justice or reason, it was subject to critique. The Ibadi school, often overlooked in mainstream Islamic studies, offers another compelling alternative. Ibadis maintained a more pragmatic and flexible understanding of Sunna, rooted in early Islamic practice, communal consensus, and ethical conduct. Their legal texts reflect a dynamic approach where Sunna includes the actions of righteous predecessors and is not strictly tied to Hadith. Early Hanafism also resisted the reduction of Sunna to Hadith. Hanafi jurists prioritized ‘amal, qiyas, and istihsan, treating Sunna as a source of law but not always equating it with textual reports. Their approach reflects a pluralistic and pragmatic legal methodology, one that navigated the tensions between textual sources and lived realities. Modern Reassessments: Ethics, Context, and Reform In the modern period, reformist thinkers have revisited the concept of Sunna in light of contemporary ethical and social challenges. Figures like Fazlur Rahman, Javed Ghamidi, and Muhammad Shahrur advocate for a values-based, ethical understanding of Sunna, decoupled from Hadith literalism. They argue that Sunna should reflect the Prophet’s moral vision rather than rigid textual reports. This modernist approach reimagines Sunna as an ethical compass, a reformist tool, and a contextual norm. It critiques the classical Hadith-centric model for its inability to address modern dilemmas such as gender justice, human rights, and pluralism. Instead, it calls for a hermeneutical methodology that prioritizes maqasid (objectives of the law), historical context, and moral intentionality. In my own work, I have argued that this rethinking of Sunna revives its pre-classical spirit—as a living tradition shaped by community, ethics, and historical consciousness. It invites scholars and practitioners alike to move beyond textual literalism and embrace a more dynamic, inclusive, and reform-oriented vision of Islamic normativity. The Politics of Definition: Who Owns the Sunna? One of the most striking insights from the historical evolution of Sunna is the role of power in shaping its meaning. Religious and political actors have long used Sunna to assert authority, define orthodoxy, and marginalize dissent. Whether in the early caliphate, the Abbasid courts, or modern nation-states, the invocation of Sunna has often served as a tool of legitimation. This politicization of Sunna is evident in the way different schools and sects have deployed the term to draw boundaries between orthodoxy and heresy. For traditionalists like the Ahl al-Hadith, Sunna became a symbol of creedal purity and legal orthodoxy. For rationalists and reformists, it became a site of ethical contestation and theological innovation. Understanding Sunna as a historically contingent and contested concept allows us to see through these power dynamics. It reveals that what is often presented as “authentic” or “original” Sunna is, in fact, the product of centuries of scholarly negotiation, political struggle, and epistemological debate. Implications for Islamic Thought Today The story of Sunna is not just a matter of historical curiosity; it has profound implications for contemporary Islamic thought. It challenges us to rethink the foundations of Islamic law, theology, and ethics. It invites us to ask: How do we deal with competing visions of what constitutes prophetic guidance and legacy ? Is fidelity to Sunna a matter of textual replication or ethical emulation? Can we recover a more inclusive and dynamic understanding of Sunna that speaks to the moral and social challenges of our time? These questions are not merely academic. They lie at the heart of contemporary debates over gender roles, religious authority, interfaith relations, and the role of Islam in public life. They also shape how Muslims engage with their tradition—whether as a source of liberation or constraint, innovation or stagnation. By tracing the conceptual history of Sunna, we gain a deeper appreciation of its richness, complexity, and transformative potential. We see that Sunna is not a fossilized relic of the past, but a living tradition—one that must be continually reinterpreted in light of changing contexts and ethical imperatives. Conclusion: Toward a Hermeneutics of Sunna The evolution of Sunna in Islamic intellectual history is a story of contestation, appropriation, and transformation. From its early usage as a communal norm to its codification as Hadith-based law, Sunna has been shaped by diverse epistemologies, sectarian identities, and political agendas. Its meanings have ranged from Sunna as Divine Pattern to Sunna as Ethical Compass, Legal Norm, Political Precedent, and Scriptural Proof. This conceptual plurality is not a weakness but a strength. It reflects the richness of the Islamic tradition and its capacity for renewal. But it also demands a critical and historically informed approach—one that resists reductive definitions and embraces the complexity of the past. As we navigate the challenges of the present, we must recover the ethical and communal dimensions of Sunna, decoupling it from rigid textualism and reimagining it as a living tradition. This requires not only scholarly rigor but also hermeneutical sensitivity and ethical imagination. In the end, the question is not whether we follow the Sunna, but which Sunna we choose to follow—and why. ----- Adis Duderija is an Associate Professor in Islam and Society and Griffith University and a book series editor of a new book series on Islam and Process-Relational Thought (Routledge). URL: https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/sunna-foundational-islamic-concept/d/137267 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism