Taqwiyatul Iman: The Puritan Manifesto that Breached Islamic Pluralism

By New Age Islam Staff Writer 14 October 2025 Taqwiyatul Iman is not just a work on theology; it is a cultural fissure. By converting reform into puritanism and piety into militancy, it established a precedent that characterises Muslim discourse to this day. Major Points: 1. Its rejection of various beliefs, its concern with purity, and its distaste for tradition formed a trajectory from religious intolerance to political violence. 2. The way to proceed is not by keeping the text under wraps but by seeing it up close — revealing how its restricted outlook contravenes Qur'anic message for all. 3. Going beyond Taqwiyatul Iman is discovering Islam again as a religion that is vibrant, affectionate, and tolerates many varying thoughts. 4. It unites rather than divides, celebrates diversity rather than fear it, and realizes that belief indeed arises not from purity but from mercy. ------ When Taqwiyatul Iman ("Strengthening of the Faith") was published in the early nineteenth century, its author Shah Ismail Dehlvi must have dreamed that his brief treatise would resonate across centuries — not just inspiring revivalist preachers, but also South Asian puritan militancy. Penned against the backdrop of Mughal decline and growing British colonial rule, the book summoned Muslims to cleanse their religion of what Dehlvi perceived as "polytheistic accretions" — practices like visiting saints' graves, commemorating the Prophet's birthday, or intercession (Tawassul). It was a loud appeal for the revival of monotheism (Tawhid) to his disciples, and a proclamation of war against India's rich religious pluralism and Sufi practices that had synthesized Islam with indigenous spirituality for centuries to others. The literalness and vitriolic tone of the book eventually assisted in forging a new vocabulary of morality — a vocabulary that refused coexistence, defamed others as heretic, and provided a theology for violence against the "deviants." The Historical Background: Decline to Doctrinal Purity It was an age of crisis in eighteenth-century India. The Mughal Empire was crumbling, Sufi Khanqahs had lost their social leverage, and Indian society was undergoing a makeover under colonial modernity. Under these circumstances, Shah Ismail Dehlvi, a follower of Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli, attempted to "reform" Muslim life according to a return to what he deemed to be authentic Islam of the Prophet and his early Companions. Centuries-old Indian Islam, with its Persian, Central Asian, and Indian Sufi influence, he deemed corrupt, superstitious, and idolatrous. He stated in Taqwiyatul Iman: "That there is no god but Allah" means that Allah is to be worshipped alone. Calling upon anyone else, e.g., a prophet, saint, or angel, is shirk (associating others with God)." At first, this might seem like traditional belief in one God. But in Dehlvi’s words, the difference between respect and “shirk” became so small that it judged almost every act of devotion in South Asian Islam — like Sufi poetry and visits to shrines — as not being part of Islam. The Core Idea: A Ruthless Concept of Tawhid Shah Ismail's entire treatise is premised on a single point — a harsh perception of tawhid. He says: "If a person bows to a person, requests a saint for assistance, or gives an offering in the name of a pir, then their religion is rendered impaired. They become similar to a polytheist." Here, the Taqwiyatul Iman converts the vibrant religious culture of Indian Islam — which found God in saints, nature, and love — into a struggle about strict regulations. For Sufis, the Prophet Muhammad is a guide and a light (nur). Dehlvi warns in his treatise Taqwiyatul Iman that believing this can lead to disbelief: "That the Prophet is well-acquainted with the unseen or that his soul descends to aid the believers is a great falsehood and a kind of polytheism." This harsh tone reflected not only theology but also a cultural rebellion — an attempt to erase centuries of synthesis between Islam and India’s plural civilization. Against the Saints: A Critique of Sufism Indian Islam was greatly influenced by Sufism. Sufi saints like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer and Shah Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi spread Islam through love and affection and not by fighting. Their Dargahs were worshipping centres where Hindus and Muslims prayed together. It was not approved by Taqwiyatul Iman, however. Dehlvi penned: "People visit saints' tombs, kiss them, burn lamps, and vow — this is nothing other than idol-worship. They have made the saints their idols in place of Allah." He said that ordinary Muslims were acting like Hindus, mixing up Islamic reform with cultural dislike. This way of speaking not only discredited Sufi devotion but also undermined India's diverse culture. Historian Barbara Metcalf stated that "When Dehlvi and Sayyid Ahmad criticized shrine-based Islam, they criticized that cultural Islam of India itself." The Political Vision: From Reform to Jihad The ideas of Taqwiyatul Iman were not just religious ones; they also became a political view. Dehlvi's friend Sayyid Ahmad launched a jihad against the Sikh Empire in the 1820s, establishing a "pure Islamic" regime in the frontier states. Taqwiyatul Iman* became a spiritual guide. It said that Muslims living in non-Muslim countries were at risk of losing their faith, and that they must fight to bring back Islamic authority. One passage reads: "When the leaders lose hope and other than Allah's laws are put forth, then jihad is a duty upon every believing person." Although framed in religious terms, that was a political message — to move away from pluralism and build a single religious order. Subsequent movements, such as the Ahl-e-Hadith and Deobandi reformers, borrowed elements from Taqwiyatul Iman. In the twentieth century, militants have used its exclusivist ideas to promote violence. The Taliban denials of shrine culture and the sectarian parties in Pakistan have some of their views attributed to this work. The Denunciation of Custom: The War on Culture Shah Ismail began a fight against indigenous customs that blended Islamic and Indian customs. He wrote: "Celebrating the Prophet's birthday, decorating graves with lights, or making offerings at shrines — such are innovations (Bid’ah) that are detrimental to religion." This assault on cultural Islam — festivals, poetry, songs, and common rituals — eroded the emotional bond between Muslims and their common cultural heritage. Sufi philosophers like Shah Waliullah wanted a blend between innovation and tradition, but Dehlvi didn't. A world segregated into Tawhid and shirk, believers and unbelievers, purity and filth was how he viewed the world. This was a simple moral outlook comparable to future Islamist thinking that divided the world into "Dar al-Islam" (Islamic territory) and "Dar al-Harb" (land of war). The Tone of Takfir: Calling Muslims Unbelievers Among the most harmful that originated with Taqwiyatul Iman was that it rendered takfir mainstream — calling others non-believers. Among them is Dehlvi, who cautions "Whosoever seeks assistance other than Allah, or makes promises to saints, he is like the idolaters in Makkah. No good will come to him till he says sorry." By linking common Muslim practices with pre-Islamic polytheism, Dehlvi opened the way for sectarian intolerance. The common Muslim who kissed a saint's grave or paid a qawwali could now be charged with kufr (disbelief). This language influenced later aggressive speech. The Taliban, for example, destroyed shrines in Afghanistan for the same reason Dehlvi criticized them — that they “corrupt the faith.” Rejection of Reason and Pluralism Taqwiyatul Iman was more than just Sufism; it also rejected rational thinking and different beliefs. Dehlvi’s version of Islam focused on strict obedience rather than personal interpretation. He rejected the use of logic in understanding faith, saying that all truths were already shown and must be followed, not discussed. Just this absolutism converted Islam from a vibrant civilization to a rulebook. In multicultural Indian society, this absolutism would breed nothing but alienation. The Qur'an itself respects diversity: "O people! We created you men and women and formed you into nations and tribes so that you may identify with each other." (49:13) It, however, saw diversity as a threat, rather than a boon. The Loss of Compassion: Doctrine Rather than Ethics Traditional Sufism focused on ihsan — doing well spiritually through love, humility, and helping others. But Dehlvi’s strict beliefs changed love into fear. Religion turned into a checklist of sins instead of a path to God. The faithful man in Taqwiyatul Iman is instructed "Worship Allah alone. Fear of anyone else, even in a demonstration of deference, is a form of shirk." It impoverished Islam by making this religion a control ideology. Compassion, the Prophet's message per excellence — "Ar-Rahman ar-Rahim" (the Most Merciful, the Compassionate) — was lost under legalism. Such a mindset easily mutates into militancy: when faith loses love, it seeks power. From Creed to Conflict: The Militarisation of Faith After Shah Ismail joined Sayyid Ahmad's jihad movement, its manual became Taqwiyatul Iman. That the manual was dedicated to eradicating "deviant" Muslims made assaulting them a religious duty. During the jihad of the 1820s in the North-West Frontier, Ismail's men not just engaged Sikh troops but also had confrontations with native Pashtun tribes, claiming they had a dirty form of Islam. This cycle would recur in following centuries — militants waging war against fellow Muslims in the name of purification. Historian Ayesha Jalal remarks that the Taqwiyatul Iman "made intolerance seem sacred by converting political rivalry into a struggle for pure belief." It remains ongoing till this day. Terrorist groups in Afghanistan and Pakistan have regularly used quotes from Taqwiyatul Iman or its continuations to justify shrine bombings and attacks against minorities. The Mind's Influence: Fear, Guilt, and Control Besides politics, Taqwiyatul Iman also changed the manner in which Muslims dealt with their thoughts. By terming common forms of worship as idolatry, they were guilt-ridden and suspicious. Each emotion — love for the Prophet, regard for saints, cheer during festivals — was deemed incorrect. Faith became confinement, not liberation. This early fear mirrored the authoritarian control of later Islamist groups. When belief is grounded in guilt, it readily submits to strict authority. Why the Book is Anti-Pluralistic Pluralism increases as we understand that truth can be demonstrated in a diversity of ways. Dehlvi's thoughts disagree with this notion. According to his perception, there exists a single right way to demonstrate belief, a sole right perception, and a sole permissible society. This totalism is fundamentally anti-pluralistic. Diversity is viewed as dilution and coexistence as compromise. In India, which has many cultures, Islam has grown through changes in culture — like Urdu poetry and qawwali. These ideas are very harmful. They destroy the social ties that help different communities live together. Criticism from Modern Scholars Even during Dehlvi's lifetime, classical scholars panned Taqwiyatul Iman as excessive. Maulana Fazle Haq Khairabadi, a renowned religious scholar, stated that Ismail incorrectly conceived the notion of intercession and belittled the Prophet. Later, the Barelvi movement — led by Ahmed Raza Khan — clearly wrote responses to Taqwiyatul Iman, saying that its ideas of fear went against the Qur’anic message of kindness. Ahmed Raza stated in Husam al-Haramayn that Dehlvi's thoughts "enfeeble the alliance of love between the faithful and the Prophet and engender disputes amongst Muslims." Modern Relevance: The Ongoing Shadow Two hundred years on, its impact can still be traced throughout South Asian Islam. You hear its rhetoric in the tones of stern clerics, in the fatwas against shrine celebrations, and in the violation of Sufi shrines throughout Pakistan. The binary thinking in the book — pure and impure, heretic and believer — is found in modern extremist thinking. Groups like the Pakistani Taliban, Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, and ISIS work with a similar theological justification: anyone that does Islam any differently is a target. Even in non-violent ways, rigid values of Taqwiyatul Iman encourage cultural intolerance — that is, rejecting culture, music, and other backgrounds. The Alternative: Islam of Love and Coexistence There is a face of Islam that is a face of love. Poets like Rumi, Bulleh Shah, and Khusrau saw God in a thousand things. They concurred with the Qur'an that "To each among you We have prescribed a law and a path; if God had willed, He could have made you one community." (5:48) This Islam celebrates diversity as the will of God. It invites conversation, not conflict. It makes holy mercy, not vitriol. Indian Islam flourished for centuries on that kind of pluralistic spirituality. It was a civilization in which a Muslim sang songs about Krishna, and a Hindu worshipped a Sufi saint. Taqwiyatul Iman aimed at demolishing that civilization. Arguing its Logic Back: Faith versus Obedience It insists basically that religion is rule-following. It sees human experience as fraught with danger and emotion as disobedience. But religion, the Qur'an says, is to bring peace: "Surely, in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find peace." (13:28) Dehlvi's theology causes restlessness, not peace. It requires uniformity, not unanimity. It preaches the oneness of God, yet bifurcates His creation. The contemporary Muslim world is also wrestling with extremism. A piece of that is taking spirituality back from ideologies. Conclusion: Why the Taqwiyatul Iman Still Matters Taqwiyatul Iman is not just a work on theology; it is a cultural fissure. By converting reform into puritanism and piety into militancy, it established a precedent that characterises Muslim discourse to this day. Its rejection of various beliefs, its concern with purity, and its distaste for tradition formed a trajectory from religious intolerance to political violence. The way to proceed is not by keeping the text under wraps but by seeing it up close — revealing how its restricted outlook contravenes Qur'anic message for all. The great poet Allama Iqbal had said: "Religion, if it is nothing more than despotism or custom, is no longer faith." Going beyond Taqwiyatul Iman is discovering Islam again as a religion that is vibrant, affectionate, and tolerates many varying thoughts. It unites rather than divides, celebrates diversity rather than fear it, and realizes that belief indeed arises not from purity but from mercy. 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