Muhibbullah Bihari’s Musallamus Sabut: Re-rooting Wahdat al-Wujūd in Indo-Islamic Tradition with Metaphysical Defence of Non-Duality

By Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi, New Age Islam 22 October 2025 Note: This essay is inspired by the forthcoming PhD thesis on the manuscript of Musallamus Sabut, the celebrated work of the eminent 17th–18th century Indian scholar of theology, philosophy, and metaphysics, Allama Muhibbullah Bihari. This book is among the few renowned works of Indian Islam that gained equal recognition and acceptance throughout the Arab and Islamic worlds. Every sentence of this work is a cradle of knowledge and wisdom, offering answers to the pressing intellectual questions of the present age. The PhD thesis submitted by Dr Manzarul Islam Azhari is in the offfing, and is expected to be out in the next few months. Main Points: 1. Defence of Wahdat al-Wujūd (Unity of Being): Shaykh Muhibbullah Bihari’s Musallamus Sabut is a profound metaphysical defense of Ibn al-ʿArabi’s doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujūd—that all existence is but a manifestation of the One Divine Reality (al-Ḥaqq). He rationally argues that multiplicity has no independent existence apart from God’s self-disclosure (Tajallī). 2. Synthesis of Reason, Revelation, and Mysticism: The treatise bridges ʿIlm al-Kalām (Islamic theology), philosophy (Falsafa), and Sufism (Tasawwuf), demonstrating that intellectual reasoning and Qur’anic revelation complement each other. It upholds rational inquiry (Burhan) as a means to deepen divine understanding rather than oppose revelation. 3. Refutation of Dualism and Anthropomorphism: Muhibbullah rejects the rigid separation between Creator and creation promoted by literalist theologians. Using Qur’anic reasoning, he affirms that all beings are dependent reflections of the Divine Essence—God transcends yet pervades creation, making his view panentheistic, not pantheistic. 4. Doctrine of Tajallī and Human Perfection: Central to the work is tajallī—Divine self-manifestation through creation. Every being mirrors God’s Names and Attributes, and the insān kāmil (Perfect Human) reflects them most completely. This vision leads to spiritual humility, compassion, and iḥsān—seeing God in all things. 5. Intellectual Legacy and Indo-Islamic Significance: Musallamus Sabut influenced later Sufis like Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and served as a philosophical counterweight to the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi critique of Wahdat al-Wujūd. Preserved in libraries across India, it remains an underexplored masterpiece that epitomizes the rational-mystical synthesis of Indo-Islamic metaphysics. ----- First page of the manuscript Musallamus Sabut ----- Introduction: An erudite scholar-friend of this writer, Dr Manzarul Islam Azhari has recently submitted his PhD thesis with an annotation on the remarkable work Musallamus Sabut (“The Established Proofs”) by Shaykh Muhibbullah Bihari (d. ca. 1648 CE). Major Indo-Islamic thinker of the Chishti-Sabiri Silsila and a disciple of Shaykh ʿAbd al-Rahman Chishti known for his deep engagement with Ibn al-ʿArabi, Shaykh Bihari's "Musallamus Sabut" — and especially his defence of Wahdat al-Wujūd— based on extant scholarly interpretations is truly insightful! I had a brief exposure to the various letters and Sufi discourses (makātīb) reflecting his mystical thought, thanks to Dr Manzar ul Islam Saheb. A magnum opus on ‘Ilm al-Kalām (Islamic theology) — one that bridges the rationalist tradition of scholastic theology with the illuminative metaphysics of Sufism— it is one of the most remarkable yet underexplored works of Indian Sufi metaphysics. Written in eloquent Arabic during the Mughal period, this treatise represents a profound defence of the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujūd—the Unity of Being—as articulated by Ibn al-ʿArabi and developed within the Chishti-Sabiri tradition. Through a synthesis of Qur’anic revelation, rational argument, and mystical insight, Shaykh Bihari demonstrates that only Divine Presence truly exists, while all creation is but His self-manifestation (Tajallī). This essay explores the key arguments, philosophical methods, and enduring legacy of Musallamus Sabut within Indo-Islamic intellectual tradition. In an era when speculative philosophy (falsafa) and rational theology (‘ilm al-kalām) are losing ground to juristic literalism in the Indian madrasas, we need to revitalize Muhibbullah Bihari's epistemology of Usul-ud-Deen and metaphysical kalām methodology as a living discipline. His Musallamus Sabut reasserts the intellectual legitimacy of reasoning in matters of divine knowledge, not as an alternative to revelation but as its inner unfolding. Shaykh Bihāri and His Intellectual Milieu Shaykh Muhibbullah of Bihār (d. 1058 AH / 1648 CE) stands among the foremost metaphysical thinkers of the Indian Sufi tradition. A master of the Chishti-Sabiri silsila, he was a disciple of Shaykh ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Chishti, and a contemporary of Emperor Shah Jahan. His spiritual circle in Allahabad (then known as Ilahabad) became a centre of both Sufi devotion and philosophical discourse. Muhibbullah’s intellectual project reflects the mature Indo-Sufi attempt to reconcile the theological orthodoxy of the Qur’an with the metaphysical depth of Ibn al-ʿArabi’s theosophy. He authored several works, most notably Musallamus Sabut, SharḥʿAyn al-Yaḳīn, and Risālah fī al-Wujūd, all of which revolve around the ontology of Being (wujūd). His writings mark a shift from ecstatic mystical expression toward a more rationalized, scholastic Sufism—a trend that matured in Mughal India alongside figures like ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq Muḥaddith Dehlawi and Mulla ʿAbd al-Ḥakīm Sialkoti. Musallamus Sabut: The Meaning and Magnificence The title Musallamus Sabut is roughly rendered as “The Soundly Established Proofs”. The treatise was written to affirm the ontological and rational soundness (taḥqīq) of the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujūd—that all existence is a manifestation of the One Reality (al-Ḥaqq), and that multiplicity has no independent being. While Ibn al-ʿArabi had expounded this doctrine primarily through mystical intuition, Muhibbullah sought to ground it in philosophical reasoning and Qur’anic exegesis. Thus, Musallamus Sabut stands as a defense of mystical monism against the charges of pantheism levelled by certain orthodox scholars of his time, especially those aligned with the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi school, who promoted Wahdat al-Shuhūd (Unity of Witnessing) as an alternative to Wahdat al-Wujūd, the oneness of existence. The text presents a systematic exposition of the doctrine of unity (tawḥīd), with rational and scriptural arguments defending the mystical view of Wahdat al-Wujūd. Musallamus Sabut waw lately part of the madrasas' curriculum called Dars e Nizami. It had become an important text in Indo-Muslim metaphysical discourse, especially among Sufis and scholars defending Wahdat al-Wujūd against the reformist critiques of the 17th–18th centuries. It influenced later Indian thinkers such as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, who engaged deeply with the same metaphysical ideas. The book’s arguments were also cited by scholars like ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq Muḥaddith Dehlawi and ʿAbd al-Ra’ūf al-Muniri in their Sufi writings. Main Themes and Doctrines 1. Unity of Being (Wahdat al-Wujūd): Muhibbullah defends Ibn al-ʿArabi’s view that all multiplicity emanates from a single Divine Reality, not as pantheism but as theophany (manifestation of God’s Names and Attributes). 2. Relationship between the Creator and Creation: He uses philosophical terminology to explain that existence (wujūd) truly belongs only to Allah; all other beings are reflections of that Absolute Existence. 3. Refutation of Dualism and Anthropomorphism: The book argues against the literalist and dualist interpretations of God’s attributes, offering instead a Sufi metaphysical reading of Qur’anic verses. 4. Proofs and Rational Demonstrations: As the title suggests, the treatise uses rational proofs (Burhan) to establish the mystical truths — bridging the gap between philosophy (Falsafa) and Sufism (Tasawwuf). 5. Ontological Argument: The Real as the Only Existence “Everything upon it (the earth) will perish, and there will remain only the Face of your Lord.” (Qur’an 55:26–27) From this he concludes that: All contingent beings (Mumkināt) are dependent upon the Necessary Being (Wājib Al-Wujūd). Dependence implies non-reality in themselves; their existence is nothing but the self-disclosure (Tajallī) of the Real Being. He writes, “The Real (al-Ḥaqq) is Being itself; all else is His shadow (Ẓill) and reflection. Were the light of the Real withdrawn, nothing of the cosmos would remain perceptible.” This analogy—light and shadow—is central to his argument: multiplicity exists only as the mode of manifestation, not as a separate ontological principle. Hence, creation is not “other than” God but rather God’s own appearance in diverse forms. The Epistemology of Being: Seeing Unity in Multiplicity Shaykh Muhibbullah Bihari devotes considerable attention to how human knowledge perceives existence. Drawing upon the Qur’anic verse, “Whithersoever you turn, there is the Face of Allah” (2:115), he asserts that all perception—whether sensory or intellectual—is, in truth, a perception of the One Being manifesting through finite forms. He distinguishes between: Conceptual multiplicity (Taʿaddud Dhihnī), which arises from mental abstraction, and Ontological unity (Waḥdat Wujūdī), which pertains to the Real itself. The world, therefore, is not an illusion (Maya) in the sense of complete unreality, but a relative reality (Ḥaqīqat Iḍāfiyyah) whose being is entirely dependent upon the Divine Being. This subtle distinction shows how Muhibbullah engages Indian philosophical ideas indirectly, while maintaining Qur’anic monotheism. Rational Proofs (Burāhīn) for Unity of Being The treatise presents three levels of argumentation: Metaphysical Proof: Every possible being (Mumkin Al-Wujūd) cannot exist by itself; it requires a Necessary Being (Wājib Al-Wujūd). Therefore, contingent beings have no independent reality—only the Necessary Being truly “is.” Epistemological Proof: Perception and cognition relate only to Being, not to non-being. Hence, all knowledge implicitly affirms the One Existence that underlies phenomena. Scriptural Proof: Verses such as “He is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward” (57:3) and “There is nothing like unto Him” (42:11) are interpreted as expressing not distance but the all-comprehensive nature of Divine Being. By combining these proofs, Muhibbullah establishes that Wahdat al-Wujūd is not merely a mystical intuition but a rationally demonstrable truth consonant with revelation. Refuting Dualism and Anthropomorphism Muhibbullah critiques those theologians who posit a strict Creator–creation duality, accusing them of falling into subtle anthropomorphism. He argues that to imagine God as separate from the world spatially or temporally is to limit His infinitude. He writes: “The multiplicity of beings does not negate Unity, for their plurality lies in form (Sūrah), not in Essence (Dhāt). Whoever sees multiplicity has seen only the veils of manifestation, not the Light itself.” This statement is not pantheistic but panentheistic: the world is in God, but God transcends the world. The Tajallī doctrine allows him to preserve both transcendence (Tanzīh) and immanence (Tashbih). The Doctrine of Tajallī: Divine Self-Manifestation Central to Musallamus Sabut is the notion of Tajallī—Divine self-disclosure. All created beings are loci (Maẓāhir) through which the Names and Attributes of God appear. This idea, derived from Ibn al-ʿArabi and ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Jīlī, is developed by Muhibbullah with logical precision. He explains: The cosmos is a mirror reflecting the Names of Allah. Each being reveals a particular aspect of Divine perfection. The human being (Insān Kāmil) is the comprehensive manifestation, containing all attributes in potential or actual form. Through Tajallī, God “knows” Himself in multiplicity, yet remains the One Reality beyond all forms. The Human Being and Ethical Implications For Muhibbullah, metaphysical knowledge must culminate in ethical and spiritual transformation. Realizing the unity of Being leads to: (1) Humility, since the self has no independent existence. (2) Compassion, as every creature manifests the Divine Presence. (3) Iḥsān (spiritual excellence)—to worship God as if one sees Him in all things. He thus translates metaphysical insight into practical mysticism, grounding Sufi ethics in ontological monism. To perceive unity is to embody mercy; to see God in all is to love all. Legacy and Influence Muhibbullah Bihari’s thought profoundly influenced the trajectory of Indian Sufism. His Musallamus Sabut served as a philosophical counterweight to the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi emphasis on Wahdat al-Shuhūd advocated by Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi. Later thinkers like Shah Waliullah Dehlawi acknowledged both positions, seeking a synthesis between Wujud and Shuhūd. Even in the 18th and 19th centuries, Sufis such as ʿAbd al-Ra’ūf al-Muniri and ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq Dehlawi referred to Muhibbullah’s formulations as examples of “sound metaphysical reasoning in defence of the people of unveiling (Ahl al-Kashf).” While Musallamus Sabut remains largely unpublished, manuscripts are preserved in the Raza Library (Rampur), Aligarh Muslim University, and Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad. It awaits modern critical editing and translation. Conclusion: The Radiance of Oneness Shaykh Muhibbullah Bihari’s Musallamus Sabut represents the culmination of Indo-Sufi metaphysical thought. It harmonizes revelation, reason, and mystical experience into a single vision of Being. By affirming that “there is nothing in existence but the One Existence, and all else is His shadow,” Muhibbullah does not dissolve the distinction between Creator and creation; rather, he reveals their intimate unity in dependence and manifestation. His vision remains deeply Qur’anic: the world is not God, but it is nothing without God. Through the luminous reasoning of Musallamus Sabut, we glimpse how the Indian Sufis transformed abstract metaphysics into a living spirituality—one that sees Divine Beauty in every atom of creation. References S. A. A. Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Vol. II (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983), 197–205. Syed Hasan Askari, “The Metaphysical Thought of Muhibbullah Bihari,” Islamic Culture 43, no. 3 (1969): 179–191. A. K. A. Qadiri, Sufi Thought in the Indian Subcontinent (Lahore: Ferozsons, 1996), 112–121. Ibn al-ʿArabi, Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam, ed. A. Afifi (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-ʿArabi, 1946). ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Jīlī, al-Insān al-Kāmil fī Maʿrifat al-Awākhir wa-l-Awāʾil (Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Tijāriyya al-Kubrā, 1929). Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, Tafhīmāt-i Ilāhiyyah, ed. G. N. Jalbani (Hyderabad: Dāʾirah al-Maʿārif al-ʿUthmāniyya, 1970). A. H. Sheriff, “Philosophical Dimensions of Indian Sufism,” Journal of Islamic Studies 12, no. 2 (2001): 213–231. ---- Regular Columnist with Newageislam.com, Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi is an Indo-Islamic scholar, Sufi writer and author of "Ishq Sufiyana: Untold Stories of Divine Love URL: https://www.newageislam.com/books-documents/muhibbullah-musallamus-sabut-wahdat-wujud-non-duality/d/137342 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism