Karma, Reincarnation and Avatārvāda in Indian Sufism: A Spiritual Symbiosis & Synthesis!

By Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi, New Age Islam 27 September 2025 Philosophical reflections with a comparative exploration of karma, reincarnation, and Avatārvāda in conversation with Sufi metaphysics, highlighting their symbolic reinterpretation in Islamic Indology as eternal pathways to spiritual evolution, salvation, divine union, and mystical universality. Main Points: 1. Moral Causality Across Traditions – Karma in Indic thought and ‘amal/qadar in Sufism both stress that actions have consequences beyond the immediate moment, but while karma functions as an impersonal law, Sufism roots causality in the will and justice of a personal God. 2. Reincarnation vs. Resurrection – Indic traditions embrace saṁsāra (rebirth) as the soul’s journey until liberation, whereas Islamic teaching emphasizes a single life followed by bodily resurrection. Sufi mystics sometimes interpreted rebirth allegorically as stages of inner transformation. 3. Divine Manifestation – Avatārvāda, the descent of God as avatars, finds resonance in Sufi doctrines such as nūr-e-Muhammadī, the role of the Qutb, and Ibn ‘Arabi’s al-insān al-kāmil. Both traditions explore how the divine relates to the human, though Sufism denies literal incarnation. 4. Shared Philosophical Concerns – Both Indic and Sufi frameworks wrestle with similar existential issues: theodicy (why suffering exists), the soul’s destiny, and divine-human mediation. Despite doctrinal differences, they express a shared human quest for justice and transcendence. 5. Historical Cross-Cultural Dialogue – Encounters in South Asia (e.g., Sufi-yogi dialogues, Kabir’s poetry, Dara Shikoh’s Majma‘ al-Baḥrayn) created fertile ground for comparative synthesis, showing how mystical traditions bridge cultural and religious boundaries. 6. Note: This paper was presented at the 9th International Dharma Dhamma Conference held on 18-20 September 2025 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. ------- Introduction The doctrines of karma, reincarnation, and avatārvāda form central pillars of Indian philosophy and religion. These ideas not only shape metaphysical worldviews but also inform ethical frameworks, eschatological expectations, and mystical practices. Karma refers to the universal moral law of cause and effect; reincarnation (saṃsāra) denotes the cycle of births and deaths conditioned by karma; and avatārvāda expresses the divine intervention in human history through incarnations of the Supreme Being. Sufism, as the mystical dimension of Islam, has often engaged in dialogue with local religious and philosophical systems, particularly in South Asia. Certain Sufi thinkers addressed questions resembling karma and reincarnation under the terminology of qadar (divine decree), 'amal (action), and tanāsukh (transmigration). Although reincarnation as a doctrine is generally rejected in orthodox Islamic theology, traces of such notions appear in mystical currents, especially under Neoplatonic and Persianate influences. The doctrine of avatārvāda similarly resonates with Sufi understandings of divine manifestation, whether through the primordial light of Muhammad i.e. nūr-e-Muhammadī, the cosmic hierarchy of saints, or the role of the Perfect Human. This paper investigates these themes through a comparative lens, seeking to understand how Indic and Sufi philosophies reflect upon spiritual justice, cosmic cycles, and divine-human relationships. The doctrines of karma, reincarnation, transmigration, and avatāra are central to Indic religious and philosophical traditions, particularly Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. These ideas articulate a cyclical view of life, death, and cosmic justice through repeated births, guided by the moral law of karma. By contrast, Islamic theology affirms a linear eschatology centered on resurrection (baʿth), divine judgment, and eternal destiny. Yet, in the rich mystical currents of Sufism, echoes and analogues of these Indic doctrines surface in complex and symbolic ways. This paper explores how Sufi thinkers have engaged—directly or implicitly—with notions akin to karma, rebirth, transmigration (tanāsukh), and avatāra. By examining the works of Ibn ʿArabi, Rūmī, al-Hallāj, and later Indo-Persian Sufis, alongside the intellectual milieu of medieval India where Hindu and Sufi traditions met, this paper demonstrates both convergences and divergences. While Sufism does not affirm reincarnation as literal doctrine, it often reinterprets rebirth symbolically as spiritual transformation. Similarly, the Indic idea of avatāra resonates, at a mystical level, with the Sufi conception of the Insān al-Kāmil (Perfect Man) and the Muhammadan Reality. By situating these parallels in a comparative theological framework, the paper highlights how Sufism functions as a bridge in interreligious dialogue, offering a metaphysical vocabulary to understand human destiny, divine justice, and the possibility of union with the Absolute. Karma in Indic Thought and Sufi Perspectives Karma, in its most fundamental sense, signifies the law of moral causation, according to which every action produces consequences that shape the individual's future experiences. In Hinduism, karma is tied to dharma (duty) and moksha (liberation), while in Buddhism it relates to pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). The Jain tradition emphasizes karma as a quasi-material substance that binds the soul. But in Islam, while the doctrine of karma as inherited from Indic traditions is absent, parallels emerge in the concepts of 'amal (actions), thawāb (reward), and ithm (sin). The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes that "whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it, and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it" (Qur'an 99:7-8). The moral logic here resonates with the karmic principle that no deed is without consequence. Essentially, the concepts of karma, reincarnation, transmigration, and avatāra are cornerstones of Indic cosmology and spirituality. In Hinduism, they form an interconnected system explaining the moral structure of the universe and the dynamics of human existence. Karma ensures that every action has consequences, reincarnation provides the mechanism through which the soul experiences these consequences across lifetimes, transmigration describes the cyclical movement of the soul through various forms, and the avatāra doctrine embodies the divine intervention that restores cosmic order. Together, they present a worldview that is cyclical, ethical, and theologically rich. Islam, by contrast, articulates a distinctly linear eschatology. The Qur’an affirms that every soul lives once, dies, and will be resurrected for judgment: “Every soul shall taste death, then to Us you will be returned” (Qur’an 29:57). The final resurrection (baʿth), the Day of Judgment (yawm al-qiyāmah), and eternal abode in paradise or hell constitute the Islamic vision of the afterlife. On the surface, such a framework leaves little room for doctrines of reincarnation or transmigration. Likewise, the idea of avatāra, as divine descent in human form, contradicts the Islamic principle of tanzīh—the absolute transcendence of God. Sufi masters such as Jalal al-Din Rumi and Ibn Arabi elaborated on the metaphysical implications of action. For Rumi, actions performed with sincerity align the soul with divine love, while heedless actions entangle one further in the nafs (lower self). Ibn Arabi developed the notion of al-a'māl al-sāriya (subtle effects of actions) that reverberate across spiritual planes. These notions bear resemblance to karmic causality, suggesting that action conditions the soul's state beyond immediate temporality. However, the crucial difference lies in the source of moral law. In Indic traditions, karma operates as an impersonal cosmic principle, whereas in Islam it is grounded in the will and justice of a personal God. Thus, while similarities exist in function, their ontological bases diverge. However, the esoteric dimensions of Islam, especially Sufism, reveal a more nuanced picture. Sufi metaphysics, poetry, and practice often gesture toward ideas that resemble karma, rebirth, and divine embodiment, albeit in symbolic or mystical forms. In medieval India, where Sufi mystics encountered Vedantic, Bhakti, and Buddhist thought, these resonances deepened. Thinkers such as Dara Shikoh, who translated the Upanishads into Persian, explicitly sought a bridge between Islamic mysticism and Hindu philosophy. Reincarnation in Indic Traditions and Sufi Thought Reincarnation, or the cycle of rebirths (saṃsāra), is central to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The cycle continues until liberation (moksha or nirvāṇa) is achieved, through the exhaustion of karmic bonds. The doctrine explains both individual destiny and cosmic justice, providing an answer to the problem of suffering and inequality. In Islamic theology, the idea of reincarnation (tanāsukh) has been consistently rejected by mainstream scholars. The Qur'an presents life as a singular journey followed by death, resurrection, and final judgment (Qur'an 23:15-16). Nonetheless, mystical and heterodox currents within Islam engaged with notions akin to reincarnation. The Ismaili and Druze traditions, for instance, incorporated doctrines of transmigration. Certain Persian Sufis also entertained the idea of spiritual rebirth across multiple forms. The Persian poet Farid al-Din Attar hints at the soul's journey across various states of being, while al-Biruni, in his Kitab al-Hind, noted the similarities between Indian reincarnation doctrines and certain Islamic mystical notions. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), though a philosopher more than a Sufi, discussed the possibility of pre-existence of souls, which echoes Indic thought. Among South Asian Sufis, some engagement with reincarnation was inevitable due to cultural proximity with Hindu and Buddhist traditions. However, most reconciled it allegorically, interpreting rebirth as symbolic of the soul's inner transformations rather than literal transmigration. The Indic doctrine of reincarnation, or rebirth of the soul in successive bodies across lifetimes, is one of the most defining features of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Rooted in the broader metaphysics of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death), reincarnation ensures the operation of karma over multiple lives, allowing the soul to exhaust its accumulated deeds until liberation (mokṣa or nirvāṇa) is attained. Unlike the linear eschatology of Abrahamic traditions, this worldview envisions existence as cyclical and potentially endless. By contrast, Islam and mainstream Islamic theology explicitly reject the idea of reincarnation. The Qur’an declares: “Until, when death comes to one of them, he says, ‘My Lord, send me back, that I might do righteousness in that which I left behind.’ No! It is only a word he is speaking; and behind them is a barrier (barzakh) until the Day they are resurrected” (Qur’an 23:99–100). This verse affirms that there is no return to earthly life after death; the soul enters the intermediate realm (barzakh) and awaits resurrection (baʿth). Classical Muslim theologians therefore deemed the doctrine of tanāsukh (transmigration of souls) heretical, often associating it with pre-Islamic paganism or heterodox sects. Yet, in the mystical and esoteric currents of Islam, particularly in Sufism, the picture becomes more complex. While orthodox Sufis remained loyal to Qur’anic eschatology, their symbolic and experiential language sometimes paralleled reincarnation, especially when describing the soul’s transformation through multiple states of being. Historically, the doctrine of tanāsukh did appear among certain heterodox Muslim groups, such as the Druze, the Nuṣayrīs (Alawites), and the Ismāʿīlī-influenced sects, some of whom believed that souls migrate into new bodies—human or even animal—based on their deeds. For these groups, tanāsukh explained both divine justice and the gradations of spiritual progress. Mainstream Sunni and Shīʿī authorities, however, condemned such teachings as incompatible with Qur’anic revelation. Nevertheless, within Sufism, the language of transmigration sometimes entered in metaphorical or mystical registers. Al-Ḥallāj (d. 922), the famed martyr-mystic, spoke of the eternal return of the soul to God through cycles of annihilation (fanāʾ) and subsistence (baqāʾ). While not literal reincarnation, his bold utterances—such as “Ana al-Ḥaqq” (I am the Truth)—were read by some as implying a continuity of divine presence in human form, which critics equated with reincarnationist ideas. Rūmī and the “Many Deaths” of the Soul Perhaps the most famous Sufi text that appears to embrace reincarnation is Rūmī’s Mathnawī. In one celebrated passage, Rūmī writes: “I died as mineral and became plant, I died as plant and rose to animal, I died as animal and I was Man. Why should I fear? When was I less by dying? Yet once more I shall die as Man, to soar with the blessed angels; but even from angelhood I must pass on: all except God doth perish. When I have sacrificed my angel-soul, I shall become what no mind ever conceived. O let me not exist! For non-existence proclaims in organ tones, ‘To Him we shall return.’” This passage has often been interpreted by Hindus, Buddhists, and modern perennialists as a clear affirmation of reincarnation. However, Sufi commentators typically explain it as an allegory of spiritual ascent, not literal rebirth. For Rūmī, the “deaths” signify stages of ontological transformation: from inanimate existence to vegetative life, to animal life, to human consciousness, to angelic awareness, and finally to union with the Divine. The progression does not entail the soul returning to the world repeatedly but describes its unfolding journey toward ultimate reality. Rūmī’s poetry further illustrates this vision of the soul’s ongoing migration. The passage cited above—“I died as mineral and became plant…”—is not merely about reincarnation but about the perpetual unfolding of the soul through higher states of consciousness. For Rūmī, existence is a spiral, not a closed circle. Each death and rebirth marks an ascent toward greater realization of divine truth. The imagery of the soul passing from mineral to plant, animal, human, angel, and beyond, reflects the Sufi conviction that life is a journey of spiritual metamorphosis. This spiral ascent resonates with transmigration, though again, it is interpreted as an inner transformation rather than literal rebirth into material bodies. Ibn ʿArabī and the Endless Manifestations of the Soul Ibn ʿArabī (d. 1240), the “Greatest Master” of Sufism, provides another key perspective. In his metaphysics of wahdat al-wujūd (the unity of being), all entities are loci of divine self-disclosure (tajallī). The soul, after death, may experience endless forms and states of manifestation, not through earthly rebirths but through ontological transformations. In the Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, Ibn ʿArabī describes how the soul, upon death, enters modes of being commensurate with its inner reality, sometimes appearing in imaginal bodies in the ʿālam al-mithāl (world of images). While this is not reincarnation in the Hindu sense, it does suggest a fluidity of the soul’s embodiment and a continuity of experiential states beyond a single earthly existence. Some modern scholars, such as Toshihiko Izutsu and Henry Corbin, have argued that Ibn ʿArabī’s vision of the imaginal realm provides a bridge between the Indic doctrine of reincarnation and Islamic eschatology. Both affirm that the soul is shaped by its deeds and journeys through multiple forms, though Sufism situates this in a post-mortem spiritual geography rather than terrestrial rebirth. Ibn ʿArabī’s metaphysics of wahdat al-wujūd (the unity of being) articulates a vision of the soul’s continuous journey through divine self-disclosures (tajalliyāt). For him, the soul is never static; it undergoes perpetual transformation as God manifests Himself in new forms. After physical death, the soul continues its journey through various existential states, each corresponding to divine names and attributes. This view bears resemblance to transmigration in the sense that the soul does not remain confined to a single state of being. Rather, it “migrates” through infinite manifestations, always shaped by its moral and spiritual reality. As William Chittick notes in his study of Ibn ʿArabī, “The soul takes on forms appropriate to its preparedness; these forms are not random but are precise reflections of its inner nature.” In this sense, Sufi transmigration is metaphysical rather than biological: the soul journeys not into different species or earthly lives, but into successive theophanic forms. Tanāsukh as Symbolic Spiritual Transformation Among many Sufis, tanāsukh was reinterpreted symbolically as the transformation of states (aḥwāl) within a single lifetime. A person may “die” to the ego and be “reborn” to the spirit countless times before physical death. In this sense, reincarnation occurs not across lifetimes but across inner stations of the path (maqāmāt). Rūmī and ʿAṭṭār both speak of the seeker’s journey as a series of deaths and rebirths: dying to pride, greed, or attachment, and being reborn in humility, love, and surrender. This spiritualized understanding of rebirth brings Sufism closer to the ethical and soteriological function of karma and reincarnation in Hinduism. Both traditions agree that the soul must undergo repeated purifications until it is liberated—whether through mokṣa or through union with God. Thus, while orthodox Islam rejects reincarnation, Sufism has employed reincarnation-like imagery to describe spiritual transformation and the soul’s ongoing journey. Heterodox sects may have flirted with literal tanāsukh, but mainstream Sufis such as Rūmī and Ibn ʿArabī articulated subtler visions: rebirth as inner transformation, transmigration as movement through spiritual worlds, and cycles of death as metaphors for ascension. In dialogue with Indic thought, these parallels suggest a profound resonance in how mystics across traditions grapple with the destiny of the soul and the justice of existence. Avatārvāda and Divine Manifestation in Sufism Avatārvāda, the doctrine of divine descent, is uniquely Indian. Rooted in Vaishnava theology, it posits that God incarnates periodically to restore dharma and protect the righteous. The ten principal avatars of Vishnu, culminating in Kalki, exemplify this belief. In Sufism, direct divine incarnation is theologically untenable due to the Islamic emphasis on divine transcendence (tanzīh). Yet, mystical thought has envisioned intermediary manifestations of divine presence. The doctrine of nūr-e-Muhammadī (the primordial light of Muhammad) holds that God first created the light of Muhammad, from which all else emerged. This bears resemblance to the avatāric function of mediating the divine into creation. Similarly, the Sufi hierarchy of saints, particularly the Qutb (pole) and Ghawth (succor), parallels the avatāric idea of divine intervention through chosen beings. The concept of al-insān al-kāmil, elaborated by Ibn Arabi, presents the Perfect Human as the mirror of divine attributes, a living proof of God's immanence. In this sense, the insān al-kāmil functions analogously to the avatāra, embodying divine qualities within historical reality. However, significant differences remain: while avatārvāda permits the incarnation of the divine essence, Sufism insists on strict monotheism, allowing only the reflection or manifestation of divine attributes through human forms. Comparative Synthesis: Intersections and Divergences The comparative study of these doctrines reveals both convergences and irreducible differences. Karma and Islamic qadar both affirm moral causation but diverge in their metaphysical grounding. Reincarnation and Islamic eschatology both address questions of destiny but follow distinct cosmological narratives. Avatārvāda and Sufi concepts of divine manifestation both articulate God's intervention in history, yet one embraces incarnation while the other upholds transcendence. Cross-cultural exchanges in medieval South Asia facilitated rich dialogues between Sufis and yogis, leading to hybrid theologies that engaged both Indic and Islamic motifs. The poetry of Kabir, who bridged Hindu and Muslim audiences, testifies to such synthesis. Similarly, Dara Shikoh's Majma' al-Bahrayn (The Confluence of Two Oceans) explicitly sought to harmonize Vedantic and Sufi cosmologies. Philosophical Reflections The comparative analysis raises enduring philosophical questions: Justice and Theodicy: Karma explains suffering as the result of past deeds, while Islamic theology attributes it to divine wisdom. Can a synthesis provide a more nuanced account of suffering and moral responsibility? Ontology of the Soul: Indic traditions affirm an eternal soul subject to transmigration, whereas Islam emphasizes resurrection of both body and soul. Can these views be reconciled within a larger metaphysical framework? Divine-Human Mediation: Avatārvāda posits divine incarnation, Sufism posits the Perfect Human. Both address the problem of how the infinite relates to the finite. Do these doctrines reflect a universal intuition about divine immanence? These reflections suggest that despite doctrinal boundaries, mystical philosophies often converge on similar existential concerns. Conclusion The doctrines of karma, reincarnation, transmigration, and avatāra belong to the heart of Indian religious thought, especially within Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Hindu philosophy, karma ensures that every action bears fruit across lifetimes; reincarnation and transmigration express the soul’s repeated journeys through samsāra; and avatāra represents God’s merciful descent to restore dharma. Together, these doctrines form an interconnected framework that explains cosmic justice, moral responsibility, and divine grace. When viewed through the lens of Sufism, striking resonances and profound contrasts appear. Sufis, working within the Qurʾānic worldview, reject literal reincarnation and transmigration, affirming instead a single earthly life followed by resurrection. Yet, their symbolic descriptions of spiritual death (fanāʾ) and rebirth (baqāʾ), the purification of the heart, and the ascent of the soul through mystical “stations” (maqāmāt) echo the psychological rhythm of karmic causality and reincarnational growth. Both traditions affirm that no deed is lost: actions inscribe themselves upon the soul, shaping its destiny. Historically, South Asia became a fertile ground for dialogue between these ideas. Sufis like the Chishtīs, poets like Kabir, and thinkers like Dara Shikoh engaged deeply with Hindu philosophy, drawing analogies between karma and qadar, reincarnation and spiritual rebirth, avatāra and the Perfect Man. These encounters were not merely speculative but fostered rich traditions of devotional poetry, spiritual practice, and interreligious coexistence. In our own age, these comparative reflections bear urgent relevance. The karmic law of moral causality and the Sufi insistence on ethical purification both highlight the deep link between action and destiny. Reincarnation’s reverence for all life and Sufism’s vision of divine unity (waḥdat al-wujūd) together inspire ecological responsibility. The avatāra’s role as divine mediator and the Perfect Man’s role as cosmic axis remind humanity of its potential to embody divine virtues in an age of spiritual crisis. Ultimately, while doctrinal differences remain—cyclical vs. linear time, incarnation vs. transcendence, samsāra vs. resurrection—the deeper convergence lies in the shared aspiration: the soul’s longing for liberation, divine nearness, and ultimate truth. Both Hindu and Sufi traditions teach that human beings are not merely passive dwellers in the world but active participants in a cosmic drama where every action matters and every heart can become a mirror of the divine. Thus, the study of karma, reincarnation, transmigration, and avatāra in conversation with Sufism is not merely comparative theology—it is a call to spiritual responsibility, ethical living, and interfaith harmony. In this convergence of wisdom, we glimpse a universal horizon where human destiny, divine justice, and the mystery of existence find deeper meaning. References Al-Biruni. Kitab al-Hind. Translated by Edward C. Sachau. London: Kegan Paul, 1888. Arabi, Ibn. Fusus al-Hikam. Translated by Ralph Austin. London: Islamic Texts Society, 1980. Attar, Farid al-Din. The Conference of the Birds. Translated by Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis. London: Penguin, 1984. Chatterjee, Margaret. The Concept of Karma in Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. Nicholson, Reynold A. The Mystics of Islam. London: Routledge, 1914. Rumi, Jalal al-Din. Mathnawi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. London: E.J.W. Gibb Memorial, 1925. Sharma, Arvind. Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism. Albany: SUNY Press, 1980. Shikoh, Dara. Majma' al-Bahrayn (The Confluence of Two Oceans). Translated by M. Mahfuz-ul-Haq. Calcutta: Asiatic ----- A Regular Columnist with Newageislam.com, Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi is an Indo-Islamic scholar, Sufi poet and English-Arabic-Urdu-Hindi writer with a background in a leading Sufi Islamic seminary in India. He is currently serving as Head of International Affairs at Voice for Peace & Justice, Jammu & Kashmir. 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